MODULE 7: BASICS OF COMPUTER NETWORKS

A computer network is a collection of interconnected devices and systems that can communicate
and share resources with each other. Computer networks are the backbone of communication,
enabling data exchange, internet access, and collaborative work. Here's an introduction to the
fundamental concepts of computer networks:

Key Components of Computer Networks

Devices: Computer networks consist of various devices, including computers, servers, routers,
switches, and mobile devices. These devices are connected to the network to send, receive, and
process data.
Network Media: Network media refers to the physical or wireless transmission mediums that
enable data to travel between devices. Common examples include Ethernet cables, fiber optics,
and Wi-Fi.
Protocols: Network protocols are rules and conventions that govern how data is formatted,
transmitted, received, and processed within a network. The Internet Protocol (IP) is a
fundamental protocol for data routing.
Network Topology: Network topology refers to the physical or logical layout of devices and
connections in a network. Common topologies include star, bus, ring, and mesh.
Network Services: Networks offer various services, such as file sharing, email, web browsing,
and video conferencing. These services rely on network infrastructure and protocols.
Addressing: Devices in a network are assigned unique identifiers, such as IP addresses and
MAC (Media Access Control) addresses, to ensure data reaches the correct destination.

Types of Computer Networks

Local Area Network (LAN): LANs are small-scale networks that cover a limited geographic
area, like a home, office, or school. Ethernet and Wi-Fi are commonly used technologies for
LANs.
Wide Area Network (WAN): WANs span larger geographical areas and connect LANs over
long distances. The Internet is the most extensive WAN, connecting devices worldwide.
Metropolitan Area Network (MAN): MANs cover a city or a large campus and connect
multiple LANs. They often use high-speed fiber optic connections.
WAN - A wide area network or WAN is a computer network covering a wide geographical area,
involving a vast array of computers. The best example of a WAN is the Internet. WANs are used
to connect local area networks (LANs) together, so that users and computers in one location can
communicate with users and computers in other locations. Many WANs are built for one
particular organization and are private.
GAN – Global Area Network – the internet – Is a global connection of networks

Software for Network

Network operating system: A network requires network software or network operating system
to control the flow of data, maintain security, and keep track of user accounts.
Examples: Network Operating Systems such as Novell Network, Banyan lines, and LANtastic
are software packages designed to control data flow.
Network software is sometimes included as a component of popular computer Operating systems
such as windows for workgroup, windows 9x, UNIX, OS. A network OS has both the server and
client software.

Benefits of Computer Networks

 Resource Sharing: Networks allow sharing of resources like printers, files, and internet
connections among connected devices.
 Communication: Networks facilitate real-time communication through email, instant
messaging, and video conferencing.
 Remote Access: Networks enable remote access to data and applications, increasing
flexibility and productivity.
 Centralized Data Management: Data can be stored centrally on servers, ensuring data
consistency and security.
 Scalability: Networks can be easily expanded to accommodate more devices and users as
needed.
 Cost-Efficiency: Shared resources and centralized management reduce costs associated with
hardware and maintenance.

Challenges and Considerations

 Security: Networks face security threats such as viruses, malware, and unauthorized access.
Robust security measures are essential.
 Reliability: Network failures can disrupt operations. Redundancy and backup systems are
used to improve reliability.
 Bandwidth: Network performance depends on available bandwidth. High-demand
applications may require more bandwidth.
 Scalability: As networks grow, scalability becomes a concern. Network design must
accommodate future growth.
 Privacy: Protecting user data and privacy is critical, particularly in public networks and the
Internet.

Network Topologies
Network topology refers to the physical or logical arrangement of devices and connections in a
computer network.
Different network topologies have distinct advantages and disadvantages, influencing factors like
scalability, fault tolerance, and ease of maintenance. Here are some common network topologies:

Bus Topology:
In a bus topology, all devices are connected to a single central cable (the bus).
Devices transmit data in both directions along the bus.

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Advantages
 Easy to implement and extend
 Well suited for temporary networks (quick setup)
 Typically the cheapest topology to implement
 Failure of one station does not affect others

Disadvantages
 Difficult to administer/troubleshoot
 Limited cable length and number of stations
 A cable break can disable the entire network
 Maintenance costs may be higher in the long run
 Performance degrades as additional computers are added
 Limited scalability
 single point of failure

Star Topology:
All devices are connected to a central hub or switch.
Devices communicate through the central hub.
Advantages
 Easy to implement and extend, even in large networks
 The failure of a non central node will not have major effects on the functionality of the
network.
Disadvantages
 Limited cable length and number of stations
 Maintenance costs may be higher in the long run
 Failure of the central node can disable the entire network.

Ring Topology:
In a ring topology, devices are connected in a closed-loop or circular fashion.
Data circulates around the ring until it reaches the intended recipient.
Advantages
 Growth of the system has minimal impact on performance (Data collision is rare)
 All stations have equal access
 Each node on the ring acts as a repeater, allowing ring networks to span greater distances
than other physical topologies.
 Because data travels in one direction high speeds of transmission of data are possible
Disadvantages
 Often the most expensive topology
 Failure of one computer may impact others
 Difficult to add or remove devices

Mesh Topology:
In a full mesh topology, every device is connected to every other device.
In a partial mesh topology, only some devices are interconnected.
Advantages: High redundancy, fault tolerance, reliable data transmission.
Disadvantages: Costly and complex to implement, high cabling requirements in a full mesh.

Tree (Hierarchical) Topology:

A tree topology combines characteristics of star and bus topologies.
Multiple star-configured networks are connected to a linear bus backbone.
Advantages: Scalable, provides redundancy at the backbone level.
Disadvantages: Complexity increases with network size.

Hybrid Topology:
A hybrid topology combines two or more different topologies.
It's often used in large networks to balance the advantages and disadvantages of multiple
topologies.
Advantages: Flexible, can be customized to meet specific network requirements.
Disadvantages: Complexity increases with the number of topologies used.

Point-to-Point Topology:
In a point-to-point topology, two devices are directly connected.
It's commonly used in simple networks like point-to-point communication links.
Advantages: Simplicity, low cost for small networks.
Disadvantages: Limited scalability beyond two devices.

Star-Bus Topology:
In a star-bus topology, groups of devices are connected in a star configuration, and each group is
connected to a common bus.
It combines features of both star and bus topologies.
Advantages: Scalable and redundant at the group level.
Disadvantages: Complexity increases with the number of groups.

Cellular Topology:
Cellular networks, such as mobile phone networks, use a cellular topology.
The network is divided into cells, each served by a base station.
Advantages: Scalable, efficient use of resources.
Disadvantages: Complex infrastructure, requires frequent handoffs for mobile devices.

Choosing the right network topology depends on factors like the network's size, purpose, budget,
and requirements for redundancy and fault tolerance. Each topology has its own strengths and
weaknesses, making it important to carefully evaluate which one suits a particular network
environment.

Other Network Concepts

Client-Server Networks: In client-server networks, client devices request services or resources
from central servers. This architecture is prevalent on the internet and in enterprise
environments.

Intranets and Extranets: Intranets are private networks within an organization, while extranets
extend access to external partners or clients while maintaining security and privacy.
COMPUTER VIRUSES

A computer virus is a program that has the ability to reproduce/replicate itself without the user’s
knowledge. For example, it may attach itself to the DOS program FORMAT and run every time
you format a diskette.
There are other types of software that can cause problems in a PC. However, no other software
can replicate and it is this characteristic that makes a program a virus.
Symptoms of the Viruses
The symptoms of a virus infection depend on the virus. The following symptoms might indicate
that your computer has contracted a virus. However, some of these symptoms can have other
causes.
 Your computer displays annoying messages such as “Gotcha! Arf Arf! “You are stoned”
 Your computer develops unusual visual or sound effects. For example, characters begin to
disappear from your screen or the sound of a flushing toilet comes for your computer’s
speakers.
 You have difficulty saving files.
 Your computer suddenly seems to work very slowly.
 Files are mysteriously missing.
 Your computer reboots unexpectedly.
 Your executable files unaccountably increases in size.
Viruses are just one type of program in a large category of software designed by hackers to
disrupt or damage the data on computers.

Effects of Viruses:
 A virus can destroy/delete or corrupt data e.g. those on specific applications such as all
Excel files or all word files e.g. Sircam worm deletes data.
 Display irritating message, or otherwise disrupt computer operations. Most viruses stay in
your PC’s memory where they can cause problems by interfering with other software you
are trying to run.
 Disable hardware, making the computer unusable.
 It can perform dangerous operations like formatting the hard disk.
 It consumes the disk space, memory and wastes the processor time.
 Once you have a virus, it is very likely that you will pass it on to a colleague or a customer,
who may well lose confidence in you and your company.

Types of Viruses:

File viruses:
A file virus infects the executable program files on your computer system. These usually, but
not always, have COM or EXE file extensions. When you run an infected program, your
computer also runs the attached virus instructions to replicate or to deliver its payload. The term
payload refers to the ultimate mission of a virus. For example, the payload of the “stoned” virus
is the message,” your Pc is now stoned”.
Only a few viruses such as Cinderella and Frodo, are designed to infect data files. Because a
virus needs to be executed to spread, a data file can only be a carrier, it cannot deliver the
payload.
Boot Sector Viruses
These infect the system files your computer uses every time you turn it on. The boot sector is the
part of every hard disk and diskette, which is read by the computer every time you start it up.
The partition sector, also called the Master Boot Record (MBR), is the first part of the hard disk
to be read after the system has started up. It contains information such as the number of sectors
in each partition and the location of all the partitions.

Companion Viruses
If you have a COM file and an EXE file of the same name, Dos always runs the COM file in
preference to the EXE file is not file extension is given. Companion viruses make use of this
fact by creating COM files with the same name as the legitimate EXE files, thus ensuring they
are executed. They then pass control to the original EXE file which runs normally.

Other Potential Problems are:

Trojan Horse
A Trojan horse is a computer program that appears to perform one function while actually doing
something else. They are less widespread than viruses because they do not replicate, but they
can represent a threat when copied. A Trojan horse sometimes, but not always, harbors a virus.
For example, a hacker may write a program to format hard disk drives and embeds this program
in a file called [Link]. He then distributes the disk containing this Trojan and posts it to
computer bulletin boards where other users are likely to assume that it is a free scheduling
program, just to realize that it has deleted all the files upon execution. This Trojan horse does
not harbor a virus because it does not replicate itself.
Another popular Trojan horse looks like the login screen on a network. However, as a user logs
in, the Trojan horse collects the user’s ID and password. These are stored in a file that hackers
can access later. Armed with a valid user ID and password, the hackers can access the data
stored on the network.

Time Bombs and Logic Bombs

A time bomb is a computer program that stays in your system undetected until it is triggered by a
certain event in time, such as when a computer system clock reaches a certain date. It is usually
carried by a Trojan horse or a virus.
A notorious time bomb appeared in December 1989. Many hospitals and medical clinics
received in innocent looking package containing “ADS information” software from a company
called PC Cyborg. The process of installing the software also installed a time bomb. After the
computer was booted a certain number of times, the time bomb scrambled the data on the hard
disk. Next, the bomb displayed an invoice demanding payment before the method for
unscrambling the hard disk was revealed.
A logic bomb is a computer program that is triggered by a specific set of conditions, such as the
number of files in a disk, or a certain sequence of characters being entered. It can be carried by a
virus or a Trojan horse. But it could also be a stand alone program.

Worms
A software worm is a program designed to enter a computer system – usually a network through
security holes. Like a virus, a worm reproduces itself. Unlike a virus, a worm does not need to
be attached to an executables program to reproduce. These security holes may be electronic
mail system.

Spread
 Through data transfer; either through auxiliary storage devices, or from one computer to the
other through networking. It is spread when an infected program is executed or the computer
is booted from infected diskette. Through electronic communication devices/times as
attached to emails.

Control/Avoidance and Detection

 Avoid using high-risk disks programs e.g. disks containing public domain software or
shareware and on disks containing illegal copies of computer programs downloaded form
bulletin boards. You must use a virus detection program to check for viruses before you run
any programs from such disks.
 Use of virus detection program/anti-virus programs which examines the files stored on a disk
to determine if they are infected with a virus, then disinfects the disk, if necessary.
 Backups – make regular backups of your system.