CONSERVATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES - BCV755B

MODULE 05

Global warming: concept, indicators, factor and effects. Global climate change-indicators,
health impacts, effect on biodiversity. Introduction to global efforts in conservation of
biodiversity.

EIA regulations in India, status of EIA in India, list of projects needing environmental
clearance under EIA notifications. Case study of hydro power/ thermal power projects

GLOBAL WARMING
CONCEPT OF GLOBAL WARMING

Global warming is the long-term increase in the average temperature of the Earth’s atmosphere
mainly due to the enhanced greenhouse effect caused by human activities.
Burning fossil fuels, deforestation, industrial emissions, and rapid urbanisation increase greenhouse
gases like CO₂, methane (CH₄), nitrous oxide (N₂O), and CFCs, which trap heat and cause the planet
to warm.

INDICATORS OF GLOBAL WARMING

Global warming is not based on assumptions; it is scientifically proven through several measurable
indicators observed across the world. These indicators reveal long-term trends in temperature, ice
cover, sea levels, and weather patterns. The most important indicators are discussed below:

1. Rise in Average Global Temperature

One of the strongest indicators of global warming is the steady increase in Earth’s average surface
temperature. Over the last century, global temperatures have risen by more than 1°C, largely due to
increased greenhouse gas emissions. This warming trend has accelerated in recent decades, with the
last 10 years being the warmest ever recorded. Temperature rise affects seasons, rainfall, and
agricultural productivity and contributes to heat waves and extreme climate events.

2. Melting of Glaciers and Polar Ice Caps

Glaciers in the Himalayas, Alps, Greenland, and Antarctica are retreating at unprecedented rates.
Satellite observations show rapid loss of ice thickness and glacier mass. Polar ice caps are shrinking

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due to rising temperatures, leading to reduced albedo (reflection of sunlight), which further
accelerates global warming. Melting glaciers threaten freshwater availability for millions and
increase the risk of glacial lake outburst floods (GLOFs).

3. Rising Sea Levels

Sea levels are rising due to two main reasons:

• Melting of polar ice and glaciers, adding more water into the oceans.

• Thermal expansion - water expands when heated.

Rising seas pose major threats to coastal cities, low-lying islands, and river delta regions. Flooding,
salt-water intrusion into agricultural land, and coastal erosion have become frequent due to sea-
level rise.

4. Increased Frequency of Extreme Weather Events

Global warming has intensified extreme climatic events such as heat waves, droughts, cyclones,
heavy rainfall, forest fires, and floods. Warmer oceans increase cyclone intensity, while higher
temperatures dry out soil, causing droughts. Many countries, including India, have witnessed more
frequent climate-related disasters in recent decades.

5. Ocean Warming and Acidification

More than 90% of the excess heat trapped by greenhouse gases is absorbed by oceans, causing
ocean warming. This harms marine ecosystems, leads to coral bleaching, disrupts fish populations,
and affects global fisheries.

In addition, oceans absorb large amounts of CO₂, causing ocean acidification, which threatens
marine organisms like corals, shellfish, plankton, and disrupts food chains.

6. Changes in Precipitation Patterns

Global warming alters rainfall distribution across the world. Some regions experience excessive
rainfall, causing floods and landslides, while others face scarcity of rainfall, resulting in droughts
and water shortages. Monsoon patterns are becoming increasingly unpredictable, affecting
agriculture and water management systems.

7. Retreat of Snow Cover

Snow cover in regions like the Arctic and the Himalayas has reduced significantly. Reduced snow

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cover decreases the Earth’s ability to reflect sunlight (albedo effect), resulting in further warming.
It also affects water flow in rivers that depend on seasonal snowmelt.

8. Loss of Biodiversity and Shifts in Species Distribution

Plants and animals are shifting their habitats due to warming temperatures. Species are moving
towards cooler regions or higher altitudes. Many sensitive species, like amphibians, corals, and
polar animals, are declining or facing extinction. This change in biodiversity patterns is a strong
indicator of global warming’s impact on ecosystems.

9. Increased Atmospheric CO₂ Concentration

Measurements from the Mauna Loa Observatory and other global monitoring stations show a
continuous rise in atmospheric CO₂ levels, crossing 420 ppm—the highest in millions of years. This
directly correlates with industrialisation, fossil fuel burning, and deforestation.

10. Thawing of Permafrost

Permafrost in Arctic regions is melting due to rising temperatures, releasing trapped methane—a
powerful greenhouse gas. This triggers a dangerous positive feedback loop that accelerates global
warming further.

FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO GLOBAL WARMING

Global warming is caused by a combination of human-made (anthropogenic) and natural factors.

However, scientific evidence confirms that human activities are the dominant cause of the rapid
warming observed in the last century. The major contributing factors are explained below:

1. Greenhouse Gas Emissions (Primary Factor)

The most important cause of global warming is the excess emission of greenhouse gases (GHGs)
that trap heat in the atmosphere. Key greenhouse gases include:
• Carbon dioxide (CO₂) from burning coal, oil, natural gas, and deforestation
• Methane (CH₄) from agriculture, livestock, and landfills
• Nitrous oxide (N₂O) from fertilisers and industrial processes
• Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) from refrigerants and aerosols

These gases create a “blanket” in the atmosphere, trapping heat and enhancing the greenhouse
effect, leading to rising global temperatures.

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2. Burning of Fossil Fuels

Industries, vehicles, power plants, and households burn fossil fuels for energy.
• Coal-based power plants emit massive amounts of CO₂ and particulate matter
• Vehicles release CO₂, NOₓ, and hydrocarbons
• Industrial combustion adds greenhouse gases and heat into the atmosphere

With increasing energy demand, fossil fuel use remains the largest contributor to global warming.

3. Deforestation and Land-Use Change

Forests absorb CO₂ and act as carbon sinks. When trees are cut for agriculture, mining, settlements,
timber, or development:
• The carbon stored in trees is released into the atmosphere
• The capacity of forests to absorb CO₂ is reduced
• Soil erosion increases, reducing soil’s ability to store carbon

Rapid deforestation in the Amazon, Southeast Asia, and parts of India significantly contributes to
global warming.

4. Industrialisation and Urbanisation

Industries emit CO₂, methane, nitrous oxide, and various pollutants. Urbanisation increases:
• Construction activities
• Energy consumption
• Industrial output
• Waste generation

Cities with concrete structures trap heat, causing the urban heat island effect, which contributes to
warming at the local and global level.

5. Agricultural Activities

Agriculture is a major contributor to greenhouse gas emissions:

• Methane is produced by rice paddies and digestive processes of cattle (enteric fermentation)
• Nitrous oxide is released from excessive fertiliser use
• Burning of agricultural residue releases CO₂ and black carbon

Livestock farming alone contributes around 14% of global GHG emissions.

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6. Waste Generation and Improper Disposal

Municipal solid waste and industrial waste produce methane when decomposed in landfills under
anaerobic conditions. Open dumping and burning of waste release:
• CO₂
• CH₄
• Black carbon
• Volatile organic compounds

These pollutants significantly contribute to atmospheric warming.

7. Use of Refrigerants and Industrial Chemicals

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), and related chemicals used in air

conditioners, refrigerators, and aerosols are potent greenhouse gases.
Even small quantities can trap thousands of times more heat than CO₂. Though CFCs were phased
out under the Montreal Protocol, HFCs remain major contributors.

8. Increased Energy Consumption

Growing global population and lifestyle demands have increased energy use for:
• Cooling and heating
• Industries
• Transport
• Lighting
• Electronic devices

Most energy still comes from fossil fuels, making energy consumption a direct driver of global
warming.

9. Rapid Transportation Growth

Cars, buses, trucks, aviation, and shipping release large amounts of CO₂ and NOₓ.
Air travel is particularly carbon-intensive, and global aviation emissions have risen sharply.

10. Natural Causes (Minor Contribution)

Natural factors contribute only a small portion of recent warming but include:

a) Volcanic eruptions

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Release CO₂ but usually have short-term cooling effects due to ash.

b) Solar radiation variations

Changes in sunspot activity may slightly affect Earth's temperature, but recent warming exceeds
natural variation.

EFFECTS OF GLOBAL WARMING

1. Climate Change and Weather Extremes

Global warming is the primary driver of climate change, causing unpredictable and extreme weather
events.
• Heat waves have become more frequent and intense, increasing heat-related deaths.
• Irregular monsoons, delayed seasons, and sudden climatic shifts affect agriculture and water
supply.
• More intense storms and cyclones occur because warmer oceans supply more energy to weather
systems.
• Frequent droughts hit areas with reduced rainfall, while other regions experience flash floods
from excessive precipitation. These weather extremes directly affect human life and economic
activities.

2. Melting Glaciers, Snow Caps, and Polar Ice

Rising global temperatures have accelerated the melting of glaciers in the Himalayas, Alps,
Greenland, and the Antarctic.
• Shrinking glaciers reduce long-term freshwater availability for millions of people.
• Polar ice sheet loss raises sea levels and disturbs marine ecosystems.
• Increased melting also creates glacial lake outburst floods (GLOFs), causing severe natural
disasters in mountainous regions. This melting is one of the most visible and alarming effects
of global warming.

3. Rise in Sea Levels

Global warming causes sea-level rise due to:

• Melting of glaciers and polar ice, adding water to oceans.
• Thermal expansion—warm water expands in volume. Rising seas threaten coastal cities, island
nations, mangroves, and delta regions, leading to:

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• Coastal flooding
• Loss of land and property
• Saltwater intrusion into groundwater and agriculture
• Increased vulnerability to cyclones and tsunamis: Countries like Bangladesh, Maldives, and
parts of India (Sundarbans, Chennai, Mumbai) are at serious risk.

4. Loss of Biodiversity and Ecosystem Disturbance

Global warming affects biodiversity by altering habitats and ecological balance.

• Many species migrate to cooler regions or higher altitudes.
• Sensitive species like corals, amphibians, polar animals, and alpine plants face extinction.
• Coral reefs undergo coral bleaching due to warmer waters, losing colour and life.
• Changes in temperature and rainfall disrupt breeding cycles, flowering seasons, and food chains.
Overall, global warming weakens ecosystems and reduces global biological diversity.

5. Impact on Agriculture and Food Security

Agriculture is highly sensitive to temperature and rainfall.

• Reduced crop yields occur due to heat stress, droughts, and unpredictable monsoons.
• Crops such as wheat, rice, maize, and pulses show decreased productivity.
• Increased pests and diseases harm crops and livestock.
• Changing climate affects soil health and water availability. As a result, global warming worsens
food insecurity, especially in developing countries.

6. Human Health Impacts

Warmer temperatures and extreme weather conditions affect human health in multiple ways:
• Heat strokes, dehydration, and cardiovascular problems increase during heat waves.
• Warmer climate favours mosquitos → higher spread of malaria, dengue, chikungunya.
• Flooding increases water-borne diseases like cholera and diarrhoea.
• Air pollution and wildfires worsen asthma, allergies, and respiratory diseases.
Global warming thus poses a growing public health challenge.

7. Ocean Warming and Acidification

Oceans absorb most of the excess heat and CO₂ from the atmosphere.
• Warmer oceans disrupt fish breeding, reduce plankton, and affect fisheries.

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• Coral reefs bleach and die, affecting marine biodiversity.

• Excess CO₂ causes ocean acidification, making waters more acidic and harming shell-forming
species (corals, oysters, molluscs). This impacts the livelihood of millions who depend on
fishing.

8. Increased Frequency of Natural Disasters

Warmer climate increases the strength and frequency of natural disasters.

• Stronger cyclones form due to warmer ocean temperatures.
• Landslides increase due to intense rainfall in hilly areas.
• Wildfires spread faster in extremely dry and hot conditions. These disasters lead to loss of life,
property, and livelihoods.

9. Changes in Hydrological Cycles

Global warming disrupts the water cycle:

• Dry regions become drier → desertification
• Wet regions become wetter → flooding
• Freshwater scarcity increases. Rivers fed by snowmelt show reduced flow, threatening drinking
water and hydroelectric power.

10. Economic Consequences

All major sectors—agriculture, fisheries, tourism, infrastructure, and energy—are affected.

• More money is spent on disaster management, healthcare, and rebuilding infrastructure.
• Crop loss and reduced productivity affect farmers.
• Tourism declines in affected regions (coral reefs, glaciers, hill stations). Global warming thus
disrupts development and economic stability.

GLOBAL CLIMATE CHANGE – INDICATORS

Climate change refers to long-term shifts in temperature, rainfall, wind patterns, and weather events
across the globe. Scientists track several observable, measurable indicators to confirm that
climate change is real and ongoing. The most important indicators are explained below:

1. Increase in Global Surface Temperature

One of the strongest indicators of climate change is the consistent rise in Earth’s average
temperature.

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• Over the past few decades, global temperatures have increased at a rate unmatched in the last
1,000 years.
• More hot days and warm nights are recorded across continents.
• Heat waves are becoming more intense, frequent, and long-lasting.
This rising temperature affects weather patterns, agriculture, and the stability of ecosystems.

2. Changing Rainfall Patterns

Climate change disrupts the global hydrological cycle.

• Some regions experience excess rainfall, causing floods and landslides.
• Other areas face severe droughts, reducing water supply and crop production.
• Monsoon patterns, especially in countries like India, have become unpredictable—early
monsoons, late withdrawal, or uneven distribution. This directly affects agriculture, water
resources, and rural livelihoods.

3. Melting of Glaciers and Ice Sheets

Glaciers in the Himalayas, Alaska, Greenland, and Antarctica are shrinking rapidly.
• Loss of glacier mass reduces freshwater availability for millions.
• Melting increases the risk of glacial lake outburst floods (GLOFs) in hilly areas.
• The Arctic sea ice is decreasing both in extent and thickness. This melting is one of the most
visible and alarming indicators of global climate change.

4. Sea Level Rise

Rising sea levels are caused by:

• Thermal expansion (warmer water expands)
• Melting glaciers and polar ice caps Consequences include:
• Submergence of coastal lands
• Increased flooding during storms
• Damage to coastal ecosystems like mangroves
• Saltwater intrusion into groundwater and agricultural fields
Island nations (Maldives, Fiji) and coastal cities (Mumbai, Kolkata) are highly vulnerable.

5. Increase in Frequency and Intensity of Extreme Weather Events

Climate change has intensified cyclones, hurricanes, heavy rainfall events, droughts, and forest
fires.

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• Warmer oceans fuel stronger cyclones.

• Higher temperatures dry vegetation, increasing forest fire incidents.
• Storms now cause heavier rainfall in shorter periods, leading to flash floods.
Events that were once rare are becoming more common and destructive.

6. Ocean Warming and Acidification

Oceans absorb most of the excess heat from the atmosphere.

• Sea surface temperatures have risen, affecting fish migration and coral health.
• Warmer oceans cause coral bleaching, leading to loss of marine biodiversity.
Furthermore, oceans absorb CO₂, creating carbonic acid, which lowers pH and causes ocean
acidification.
This threatens marine organisms like corals, shellfish, and plankton, disturbing the marine food
web.

7. Shifts in Plant and Animal Distribution

Climate change causes species to shift their habitat ranges.

• Plants and animals move to higher altitudes or cooler areas.
• Migratory birds change their migration timing.
• Marine species shift towards cooler waters. These changes indicate that ecosystems are
undergoing stress due to rising temperatures.

8. Changes in Phenology (Seasonal Biological Events)

Phenology refers to periodic biological events such as flowering, breeding, and migration.
Due to climate change:
• Flowers bloom earlier or later than normal.
• Breeding cycles of many animals shift.
• Insects appear earlier during the year, disturbing agriculture and food chains.
This mismatch affects ecological balance and food availability.

9. Increased Atmospheric CO₂ and Greenhouse Gas Concentrations

Scientific measurements show CO₂ levels have risen from 280 ppm (pre-industrial era) to over
420 ppm today.
• Methane and nitrous oxide levels have also sharply increased.

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• These gases trap heat and accelerate climate change. Continuous rise in GHGs is a major
indicator of human impact on the climate.

10. Reduction in Snow Cover

Satellite data shows declining snow cover in mountain ranges and polar regions.
• Less snow reduces the Earth’s albedo (reflective capability), causing more heat absorption.
• Reduced snowmelt affects river flow and hydropower generation.

HUMAN HEALTH IMPACTS

The following health impacts are experienced due to global climate change:

1. Heat-Related Illnesses and Mortality

As global temperatures rise, heat waves have become more frequent and intense.
• Prolonged exposure leads to heat exhaustion, dehydration, heat cramps, and heat stroke, which
is often fatal if untreated.
• High temperatures strain the heart, increasing the risk of cardiovascular and kidney diseases.
• Elderly individuals, infants, outdoor workers, and people with chronic illnesses are the most
vulnerable.
Overall, climate change significantly increases heat-related deaths and hospital admissions.

2. Increase in Vector-Borne Diseases

Warmer temperatures and increased humidity create ideal breeding conditions for many disease-
carrying insects.
• Mosquitoes spread further into new regions and higher altitudes.
• Diseases such as malaria, dengue, chikungunya, Zika virus, and Japanese encephalitis are
becoming more widespread.
• Warmer water and stagnant pools formed after heavy rains further accelerate mosquito breeding.
Thus, climate change expands the geographical range and seasonal duration of vector-borne
diseases.

3. Water-Borne and Food-Borne Diseases

Changes in rainfall patterns—such as heavy rains, floods, and waterlogging—contaminate drinking
water sources.

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• This leads to outbreaks of cholera, diarrhoea, typhoid, dysentery, and leptospirosis.

• Higher temperatures promote the growth of bacteria, fungi, and pathogens, increasing the risk
of food poisoning and gastrointestinal infections.
• Drought conditions also force people to use unsafe water sources. Therefore, climate change
worsens both the quality and availability of safe drinking water.

4. Respiratory and Allergic Disorders

Climate change affects air quality in multiple ways.
• High temperatures increase ground-level ozone formation, which irritates lungs.
• Wildfires release smoke and fine particulate matter (PM₂.₅) that worsen asthma and bronchitis.
• Changes in climate make pollen seasons longer and more intense → increasing allergic rhinitis
and asthma.
• Dust storms and air stagnation worsen respiratory illnesses. Thus, climate change significantly
increases respiratory disorders, especially in children and elderly.

5. Malnutrition and Food Insecurity

Agriculture is highly sensitive to temperature and rainfall.
• Droughts, floods, and irregular monsoons reduce crop yield.
• Staple crops like rice, wheat, maize, and pulses become less productive.
• Livestock and fisheries are also affected by heat stress and water scarcity.
This leads to malnutrition, stunting, undernutrition, and micronutrient deficiencies, especially
among children in rural and low-income communities.

6. Mental Health Impacts

Climate-related disasters and environmental stressors significantly affect mental well-being.
• Survivors of floods, cyclones, fires, or droughts often suffer from anxiety, depression, and post-
traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).
• Farmers facing repeated crop failures may experience psychological distress and financial
insecurity.
• Heat waves and prolonged droughts also increase stress and irritability.
• Thus, climate change causes both direct and indirect mental health challenges.

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7. Injuries, Disabilities, and Death from Natural Disasters

Climate change increases the frequency and severity of natural disasters such as cyclones, floods,
landslides, wildfires, and storms.
• These events cause immediate injuries, deaths, and long-term disabilities.
• They also destroy healthcare facilities, disrupt emergency services, and limit access to
medicines.
Vulnerable groups like children, pregnant women, and elderly people suffer the most during
such events.

8. Decline in Water Quality and Freshwater Availability

Rising temperatures and altered rainfall impact freshwater sources.
• Rivers and lakes dry up during droughts.
• Floods and landslides contaminate water with sewage, chemicals, and waste.
Poor water quality causes skin infections, gastrointestinal diseases, and dehydration.
This leads to higher healthcare burdens in communities already facing water scarcity.

9. Increased Spread of Rodent-Borne and Zoonotic Diseases

Changes in climate affect the behaviour of wildlife and rodents.
• Diseases like plague, hantavirus, leptospirosis, and zoonotic infections spread more easily.
• Warmer temperatures may increase the transmission of viruses carried by animals to humans.
COVID-19 has highlighted the global risk of zoonotic outbreaks.

EFFECTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON BIODIVERSITY

Climate change has significant impacts on biodiversity by altering habitats, species behaviour, and
ecosystem functions. The major effects are explained below:

1. Habitat Loss and Degradation

Rising temperatures, changing rainfall patterns, melting glaciers, and sea-level rise destroy natural
habitats.

• Coral reefs bleach and die due to warmer oceans.

• Wetlands dry up, affecting birds and aquatic species.

• Forests experience drought, fires, and pest outbreaks. This reduces the quality and availability

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of suitable habitats for many species.

2. Species Migration and Range Shifts

As temperatures rise, many species move to cooler regions or higher altitudes in search of suitable
environmental conditions.
• Mountain species shift upwards.
• Marine species move towards deeper or polar waters. These shifts disturb food chains and create
competition among species.

3. Increased Risk of Species Extinction

Species that cannot adapt or migrate face extinction.

• Amphibians, corals, polar animals (like polar bears), and alpine plants are highly vulnerable.
Climate change is pushing many species close to the brink of survival.

4. Disruption of Breeding and Life Cycles

Seasonal activities like flowering, migration, and breeding are affected.

• Birds may migrate too early or too late.
• Plants may flower before pollinators arrive.
• Fish breeding cycles get disturbed by warm waters. This causes mismatches in food availability
and reproductive success.

5. Ocean Warming and Acidification

Oceans absorb heat and CO₂, leading to:

• Coral bleaching
• Loss of plankton
• Reduced fish populations
• Decline of shell-forming species (corals, mollusks). Marine biodiversity faces severe stress due
to warming waters.

6. Spread of Invasive Species and Pests

Warmer conditions favour the spread of invasive plants, insects, and diseases.
• Invasive species outcompete native species.
• Pests and pathogens thrive in warmer climates, affecting forests and crops.

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7. Effects on Food Chains and Ecosystem Stability

Changes in temperature and species behaviour disturb food chains. If one species declines, it affects
predators and prey, weakening the entire ecosystem.

GLOBAL EFFORTS IN CONSERVATION OF BIODIVERSITY

Conservation of biodiversity is a global priority because ecosystems across the world are facing
rapid degradation due to climate change, habitat destruction, pollution, overexploitation, and
invasive species.

To address these issues, several international treaties, conventions, organizations, and initiatives
have been developed. These global efforts aim to protect species, conserve ecosystems, and ensure
sustainable use of natural resources.

1. Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), 1992

The CBD is one of the most important international agreements for biodiversity conservation.

• Adopted during the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro (1992).

• Has three major objectives:

1. Conservation of biodiversity
2. Sustainable use of its components
3. Fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from genetic resources
• Encourages countries to prepare National Biodiversity Action Plans (NBAP).
• Promotes protected areas, conservation programs, and community participation.

2. Conference of Parties (COP) Meetings

The COP is the decision-making body under the CBD. Countries meet annually to evaluate progress
and set new conservation targets.
• COP-10 (Nagoya) → Nagoya Protocol for benefit-sharing.
• COP-15 (Montreal) → Global Biodiversity Framework targeting protection of 30% of
Earth’s land and oceans by 2030 (30x30 target).
These meetings help nations work together to reduce biodiversity loss.

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3. CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species), 1975

CITES controls the international trade of endangered plants and animals.

• Prevents illegal hunting, poaching, and wildlife trafficking.
• Species are listed under three Appendices depending on risk level.
• Helps protect tigers, elephants, rhinos, orchids, reptiles, and exotic birds.
CITES plays a crucial role in stopping commercial exploitation of threatened species.

4. Ramsar Convention on Wetlands, 1971

A global treaty for the conservation and wise use of wetlands.

• Wetlands are important for biodiversity, flood control, groundwater recharge, and climate
regulation.
• Countries designate Ramsar Sites for protection.
• India has more than 75 Ramsar sites, including Chilika Lake, Keoladeo, Kolleru, and
Sunderbans.
This convention helps preserve freshwater, coastal, and marine biodiversity.

5. UNESCO World Heritage Sites

UNESCO protects natural and cultural sites with global ecological importance.
• Natural World Heritage Sites include national parks, forests, lakes, coral reefs, and mountains
that have exceptional biodiversity.
Examples in India: Kaziranga National Park, Western Ghats, Nanda Devi, Great
Himalayan National Park, Sundarbans. These recognitions help conserve unique ecosystems
through global cooperation.

6. IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature)

IUCN is the world’s leading organisation for nature conservation.

• Publishes the IUCN Red List, which classifies species as Vulnerable, Endangered, Critically
Endangered, or Extinct.
• Supports conservation programs, protected areas, and community-based initiatives.
• Helps governments create conservation laws and policies.

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The Red List is one of the most reliable scientific references for identifying species at risk.

7. Bonn Convention (CMS – Convention on Migratory Species)

Focuses on the protection of migratory animals—birds, whales, dolphins, turtles, and butterflies.
• Encourages countries to cooperate since migratory species cross national borders.
• Helps protect flyways, breeding grounds, and migratory routes. CMS ensures that migratory
biodiversity is conserved across continents.

8. IPBES (Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity)

Often called the “IPCC for biodiversity.”

• Provides scientific reports on global biodiversity status.
• Helps countries make informed decisions.
• Assesses causes of biodiversity loss and suggests policy solutions. IPBES bridges the gap
between science and environmental policy.

9. The Paris Agreement (2015) – Climate Action for Biodiversity

Although primarily a climate treaty, it indirectly protects biodiversity by:

• Reducing global warming (target: limit rise to 1.5°C)
• Encouraging countries to adopt renewable energy
• Reducing deforestation and land degradation
• Slowing climate change safeguards habitats, ecosystems, and species.

10. Global Initiatives and Conservation Programs

a) REDD+ (Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation)

• Provides financial incentives to developing countries to protect forests.
• Helps reduce CO₂ emissions and preserve forest biodiversity.
b) Man and Biosphere (MAB) Programme – UNESCO
• Promotes Biosphere Reserves, where conservation and sustainable development coexist.
• India has 18 Biosphere Reserves.
c) Global Tiger Forum / Tiger Conservation Initiatives
• International collaboration to protect tiger populations.
• India leads through Project Tiger and tiger reserves.

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d) Coral Reef Conservation Programs

• Global Reef Monitoring Network (GRMN)
• International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI)

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT (EIA)

Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) in India is a mandatory process used to evaluate the
environmental impacts of major development projects before they are approved. It ensures that
growth takes place in a sustainable and environmentally responsible manner.

EIA REGULATIONS IN INDIA

1. Legal Framework

EIA in India operates under the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986, which empowers the
government to regulate industrial activities and protect the environment.
The primary guideline document is the EIA Notification, 2006, issued by the Ministry of
Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEF&CC).

2. Purpose of EIA
• To identify potential environmental impacts (air, water, soil, noise, biodiversity).
• To suggest mitigation measures before project approval.
• To ensure sustainable development and reduce ecological damage.
• To involve the public through public consultation.

3. Key Features of EIA Notification, 2006

• Projects are categorized into Category A (national level) and Category B (state level) based on
size and impact.

• Mandatory steps include:

✓ Screening – deciding if EIA is required
✓ Scoping – identifying key issues for study
✓ Public Hearing – local community participation
✓ Impact Assessment – detailed study of environmental effects
✓ Environmental Management Plan (EMP) – mitigation measures
✓ Final Appraisal – clearance or rejection

4. Authorities Involved

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• MoEF&CC – grants approval for Category A projects.

• State Environment Impact Assessment Authority (SEIAA) – approves Category B projects.
• Expert Appraisal Committees (EACs) review reports and recommend decisions.

5. Importance of EIA
• Prevents environmental degradation.
• Ensures industries comply with environmental laws.
• Protects communities from pollution and displacement.
• Promotes transparency through public participation.
• Helps balance development and environmental protection.

STATUS OF EIA IN INDIA

The Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) system in India has evolved over the years to
become an essential tool for sustainable development. It plays a key role in ensuring that major
industrial, infrastructural, and developmental projects are evaluated scientifically before
implementation. The current status of EIA in India is described below:

1. Mandatory for Major Projects

Under the EIA Notification, 2006, it is compulsory for large-scale projects—such as mining, power
plants, highways, industries, and river valley projects—to obtain Environmental Clearance (EC).
This ensures that environmental concerns are addressed before construction begins.

2. Categorisation of Projects

Projects are classified into:

• Category A: Appraised at the national level by MoEF&CC.

• Category B: Appraised at the state level by SEIAA. This categorisation ensures

decentralisation and faster clearance for smaller projects.

3. Public Participation Strongly Emphasised

Public hearings are mandatory for most projects. Local communities provide their opinions,
concerns, and objections, ensuring transparency and social acceptance. This strengthens
environmental democracy and accountability.

4. Scientific Assessment and Expert Review

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Environmental Impact Assessment Reports are reviewed by Expert Appraisal Committees

(EACs).
These committees include specialists in ecology, pollution control, hydrology, and social sciences
who evaluate the environmental and socio-economic impacts.

5. Challenges in Implementation

Although well-structured on paper, EIA in India faces challenges such as:

• Delays in clearance processes

• Poor-quality EIA reports by consultants

• Lack of monitoring after project approval

• Pressure from developers and industries

• Limited awareness among local communities

These factors sometimes reduce the effectiveness of EIA.

6. Strengthening Through Reforms

The government periodically updates and strengthens the EIA process.

Reforms include:

• Online submission and tracking of applications

• Digital access to EIA reports

• Tighter environmental norms for polluting industries

• Improved monitoring and compliance mechanisms

These steps aim to make EIA more transparent and efficient.

7. Growing Awareness and Judicial Support

The National Green Tribunal (NGT) plays a major role in enforcing EIA norms and punishing
violations.
Public awareness and activism have increased, leading to stronger scrutiny of environmentally
harmful projects.

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PROJECTS REQUIRING ENVIRONMENTAL CLEARANCE (AS PER EIA

NOTIFICATION 2006)

a) Mining Projects

Coal mining, mineral mining, sand mining.

b) Industrial Projects

Cement plants, refineries, chemical industries, fertiliser plants.

c) Infrastructure Projects

Highways, airports, ports, harbours, metro rail, SEZs.

d) Power Projects

Thermal power plants, hydroelectric projects, nuclear power plants.

e) River Valley Projects

Dams, irrigation canals, flood control systems.

f) Waste Management Facilities

Landfills, waste-to-energy plants, incinerators.

CASE STUDIES

Hydropower Project – Tehri Dam (Uttarakhand)

❖ One of India’s largest hydroelectric projects.
❖ Built on the Bhagirathi River; capacity of 1000 MW.
❖ Environmental concerns:
o Submergence of forests and villages
o Displacement of thousands of people
o Increased landslide risk
o Disturbance to river ecology
❖ Positive outcomes:
o Renewable energy generation
o Irrigation support
o Flood control

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Thermal Power Plant – NTPC Talcher (Odisha)

❖ A major coal-based thermal power plant.

❖ Environmental concerns:
o Air pollution (SO₂, NOₓ, particulate matter)
o Fly ash generation
o Water consumption and thermal pollution

❖ Mitigation through EIA:

o Electrostatic precipitators
o Ash management
o Water treatment systems
o Greenbelt development around plant

VTU Question Paper Ref:

Develop a flowchart of hydropower plant EIA environmental clearance under EIA notifications.

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