Module 3
Process safety hazards
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Module content
• 3.1 Process safety hazards in IA
• 3.2 Hazardous substances
• 3.3 Fire hazards
• 3.4 Explosion hazards
• 3.5 Flammability characteristics
• 3.6 Ignition sources
• 3.7 Gas dispersion
• 3.8 Toxic hazards
• 3.9 Environmental hazards
• 3.10 Hazards of steam
• 3.11 Chemical reaction hazards
• 3.12 High voltage electrical hazards
• 3.13 Off-shore specific hazards
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3.1 Process safety hazards in IA
Hazardous substances Explosive substances
Flammable/combustible gases and liquids
Toxic substances
Environmentally-harmful substances
Corrosive substances
Pyrophoric substances
High pressure plant Heat recovery steam generators
High pressure gas processing plant
Hydraulic systems
High voltage electrical equipment Switchgear
Transformers
Cables
Large rotating machinery Gas turbines
Compressors
Pumps
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3.2 Hazardous substances
Explosives Well completion explosives
Flammable/combustible gases and liquids Crude oil
Natural gas
Natural gas liquids/condensate
Hydrogen
Methanol
Fuel oil
Heat transfer oils
Lubricating oils
Hydraulic fluids
Toxic substances Hydrogen sulphide
Methanol
Toxic combustion products
Environmentally-harmful substances Fuel oil
Corrosion inhibitor
Corrosive substances Sulphuric acid
Caustic
Pyrophoric
4 substances Iron sulphide
3.3 Fire hazards - fire triangle
Fla
rce
mm
ou
ab
ns
le
itio
m ate
Ign
ri
al
Oxygen
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3.3 Fire hazards - theory
• Fire is a chemical reaction (combustion) generating a range of
potentially-hazardous by-products:
heat
smoke
carbon dioxide/carbon monoxide
toxic reaction products
• In a fire burning with flame, the streams of vapour evolved by the
flammable material have been ignited and continue to burn at the
interface with the surrounding air
• The rate of burning, which affects the height of the flame, is
controlled by the rate of transfer of oxygen from the air to the
burning vapour (a relatively slow process)
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3.3 Fire hazards - types of fire
• Pool fire
• Jet fire
• Flash fire
• Fireball
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3.3 Fire hazards - pool fire
condensate pool [Link]
Pool [Link]
methanol pool [Link]
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3.3 Fire hazards – Pool Fire
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3.3 Fire hazards - jet fire
Jet Dispersion and [Link]
Propane Jet [Link]
Natural Gas Jet [Link]
vessel [Link]
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3.3 Fire hazards – Jet Fire
Pressure = 70bar
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3.3 Fire hazards - flash fire
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3.3 Fire hazards - flash fire
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3.3 Fire hazards - fireball
Tanker truck [Link]
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3.3 Fire hazards - fireball
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3.4 Explosion hazards - theory
• An explosion is a sudden and violent release of energy
• Two types of explosion: chemical, physical
• In a chemical explosion the gas/vapour/mist becomes mixed with
air before it is ignited. Flame then propagates through the mixture.
The rate of burning is relatively fast and can generate damaging
overpressures
• In a physical explosion gas or steam under pressure is released
suddenly into the atmosphere, for example from a ruptured
container
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3.4 Explosion hazards - characteristics
• Deflagration < Speed of sound > Detonation
• A deflagration occurs when the reaction front advances
at less than the speed of sound. A deflagration can
generate damaging overpressures
• In a detonation, the reaction front advances at more
than the speed of sound. The pressures are much
higher than in a deflagration and more destructive
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3.4 Explosion hazards - types of explosion
• Physical, eg
– Liquid surge
– Water hammer
– Thermal expansion
– Runaway chemical reaction
• Chemical, eg
– Confined explosion
– Boiling liquid expanding vapour explosion
– Vapour cloud explosion
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3.4 Explosion hazards - confined explosion
Confined Explosions - Cine [Link]
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3.4 Explosion hazards - BLEVE
BLEVE [Link]
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3.4 Explosion hazards - vapour cloud
explosion
Cyclohexane [Link]
fauld extended [Link]
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3.5 Flammability characteristics - flammability
limits
• Below a certain limit (the lower flammable limit - LFL) a fuel-
air mixture is too lean to burn
• Above a certain limit (the upper flammable limit - UFL) a fuel-
air mixture is too rich to burn
• In between is called the flammable range
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3.5 Flammability characteristics - flash point
• The flash point of a flammable liquid is the lowest temperature
at which the vapour above the liquid will just ignite
• Flash point is the basis for classification of flammable liquids
into different hazard groups for transport and supply
• Liquids handled at temperatures below their flash point
represent a reduced hazard compared to those handled at
temperatures above their flash point
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3.5 Flammability characteristics -
autoignition temperature
• The autoignition temperature is the lowest temperature at
which a flammable gas or vapour mixed with air will self-ignite
• It measures how easily a flammable material can be ignited by
a hot surface
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3.5 Flammability characteristics
Boiling point
able lim it
er f lam m
Upp
Autoignition
Flammability range
Concentration
Lower
flam mable l
imit
Autoignition
Flash point temperature
Temperature
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3.5 Flammability characteristics
Lower Upper Autoignition
Substance Flash point
flammable limit flammable limit temperature
Hydrogen -253oC/-423oF 4.0% 75% 400oC/752oF
Methane -188oC/-306oF 5.0% 15.0% 540oC/1000oF
Gasoline -40oC/-40oF 1.4% 7.6% 280oC/536oF
Methanol 9oC/48oF 6.0% 36.5% 470oC/878oF
Gas oil/diesel >60oC/140oF 0.6% 6.5% >254oC/489oF
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3.6 Ignition sources - examples
Flames Boiler houses; furnaces; pilot lights; cutting; welding; burners; arson;
flares; hot particles; smoking
Hot surfaces Steam pipes; refractory linings; drying equipment; electric heaters;
lighting; bearings; exhausts; turbines
Electrostatic discharges Unearthed/unbonded equipment; splashing filling of flammable liquids;
high flow velocities
Electrical equipment Electric motors; switches; damaged wiring
Friction Bearings; misaligned machine parts; slipping belt drives
Mechanically-generated Accidental impacts; falling metal objects; metal tools; vessel or pipe
rupture
sparks
Autoignition Flammable mixture reaches auto-ignition temperature
Vehicle engines Ingestion of flammable vapour - diesel or gasoline engines
Self-heating Oil-soaked insulation; coal; dust layers
Atmospheric conditions Lightning
Thermite reaction Aluminium tool drops on rusty floor
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3.7 Gas dispersion
• How far a release (toxic or flammable) spreads depends on a number
of factors:
Buoyancy of the release
– Positively-buoyant (eg light gases or vapours like hydrogen)
– Neutrally-buoyant (gases or vapours with a density similar to that of air)
– Negatively-buoyant (eg dense gases or vapours like gasoline vapour)
Amount/duration of release
Temperature of release
Weather conditions
– Wind speed
– Atmospheric stability
– Ambient temperature
Local terrain and obstacles
Orientation and initial momentum of the release
LNG jet low [Link]
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3.8 Toxic hazards
• Toxic exposure:
Routes for entry to body: inhalation, ingestion or skin contact
Effects may be immediate, delayed, acute or chronic
Harm may be temporary or permanent
• Toxic effects depend on:
The concentration of the toxic substance the toxic ‘dose’
The duration of exposure
• Gas dispersion modelling can be used to calculate the
concentration of gas at a particular location
• The dispersion distances for toxic plumes are greater
than for flammable plumes because the concentrations
of interest are often in ppm rather than %
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3.8 Toxic hazards
• Normal workplace exposure limits are based on
exposures in routine work
• Separate limits have been produced to reflect
hazardous exposures during an emergency, eg
In the US:
IDLH - Immediately Dangerous to Life and Health
EPRG - Emergency Response Planning Guideline
In the UK:
SLOT - Significant Level of Toxicity (equates to 1% mortality)
SLOD - Significant Level of Death (equates to 50% mortality)
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3.9 Full Scale BLEVE Test
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