1.

SOIL –INTRODUCTION
 Soil definition
 Soil as a three dimensional body
 Pedological and Edaphological concepts
Soil Science deals with soil as a natural resource on the surface of the earth. It
includes soil formation, classification and mapping; physical, chemical, biological, and
fertility properties of soils; and deals with these properties in relation to the use and
management of soils.
The term SOIL was derived from the Latin Word “SOLUM” means FLOOR
For a Layman soil is dirt or debris
For an Agriculturist soil is a medium for plant growth
For a Mining Engineer soil is a debris covering the rocks
For a Civil Engineer soil is a material on which road bed or house bed is formed
For a Home Owner soil is a mellow or loamy or hard material
Definitions

Whitney (1892): Soil is a nutrient bin which supplies all the nutrients required for
plant growth.

Hilgard (1892): Soil is more or less a loose and friable material in which plants,
by means of their roots, find a foothold for nourishment as well as for other conditions of
growth”

Dokuchaiev (1900): Russian scientist - Father of Soil Science - Soil is a natural

body composed of mineral and organic constituents, having a definite genesis and a
distinct nature of its own.

Joffe (1936): “Soil is a natural body of mineral and organic constituents

differentiated into horizons - usually unconsolidated - of variable depth which differs
among themselves as well as from the underlying parent material in morphology,
physical makeup, chemical properties and composition and biological characteristics”.
 Jenny (1941): Soil is a naturally occurring body that has been formed due to
combined influence of climate and living organisms acting on parent material as
conditioned by relief over a period of time

Soil Science Society of America (1970):

 Soil is the unconsolidated mineral matter on the surface of the earth that has been
subjected to and influenced by genetic and environmental factors of parent material,
climate, macro and microorganisms and topography, all affecting over a period of
time and producing a product, that is “SOIL” that differs from the material from
which it is derived in physical, chemical, biological and morphological properties and
characteristics.

 The unconsolidated mineral material on the immediate surface of the earth that serves
as a natural medium for the growth of land plants.

As soil provides nutrients, water, air and anchorage and supports life on
Earth, it can be called as Soul Of Infinite Life (SOIL) - J.S. Kanwar Soil as a three
dimensional body

Soil is a three dimensional body having length, breadth and depth. They form a
continuation over the land surface and differ in properties from place to place. Its upper
boundary is air or water and lower boundary is the rock lithosphere.

List of International Soil Scientists

1. Van Helmont (1577 – 1644)
2. Theoder De Saussure
3. John Woodward
4. Boussingault (1802 – 1882)
5. J.V. Liebig (1803 – 1873)
6. [Link] & J.H. Gilbert (1855)
7. [Link] (1856)
8. [Link] (1876)
9. E.W. Hilgard (1860)
10.V.V. Dokuchaiev (1846-1903)
[Link] (1914)
[Link] (1927)
13. Hens Jenny (1941)
Indian Scientists
1. [Link] (1906)
2. Madam Scholasky (1932)
Composition of soil on volume basis
Mineral matter : 45%
Organic matter : 5%
Soil water : 25%
Soil air : 25%

Soil Components (volume b)

 Approaches of Soil Study
Two Concepts:

One treats soil as a natural body, weathered and synthesized product in nature
(Pedology) while other treats soil as a medium for plant growth (Edaphology).

Pedological Approach:

 Study of the origin of the soil, its classification and its description is known as
Pedology. (From Greek word pedon, means soil or earth).

 Pedology is the study of soil as a natural body and does not focus on the soil’s
immediate practical use. A pedologist studies, examines and classifies soil as
they occur in their natural environment.

Edaphological Approach:

 Edaphology (from Greek word edaphos, means soil or ground) is the

study of soil from the stand point of higher plants.
 Edaphologists consider the various properties of soil in relation to plant
production. They are practical and have the production of food and fibre as
their ultimate goal. They must determine the reasons for variation in the
productivity of soils and find means for improvement.

Soil can be compared to various systems of animals

 Digestive system : Organic matter decomposition
 Respiratory system : Air circulation & exchange of gases
 Circulatory system (blood) : Water movement within the soil
 Excretory system : Leaching out of excess salts
 Brain : Soil clay
 Colour : Soil colour
 Height : Soil depth
 [Link] of soil – Soil as a three phase system – composition of
earth crust

Solid, Liquid and gaseous phases

The diagram shows the relative components of the three phases of soil: solids,
liquids, and gasses. The solids may be mineral or organic. The pores are filled with either
air or water.

Soil is a three-phase, porous media, composed of solids, liquids, and voids (empty
spaces between the solids). The typical amount of total porosity (ratio of void volume to
total volume) in a mineral soil ranges from about 40% to 60%. This means approximately
40 to 60% of the volume of a mineral soil is actually empty space between the solid
particles (voids)
Mineral matter in soils

The size and composition of mineral matter in soils are variable due to nature of
parent rock from which it has been derived. In general, the primary viz., Quartz, biotite,
muscovite etc., dominate the coarser fractions of soil, on the other hand, the secondary
minerals viz., silicate clays and hydrous oxide clays of ion and aluminium etc., are
present as very finer fraction, clay in the soils.
 Organic matter in soils

Soil organic matter exists as partly decayed and partially synthesized plant and
animal residues. Such organic residues are continually being broken down as a result of
microbial activity in soil. Organic matter is a store house of nutrients soil. Besides these,
organic matter is responsible for most desirable soil physical properties.
Soil water

Soil water plays a very significant role in soil plant growth relationships. Water is
held within the soil pores with varying degrees of forces depending on the amount of water
present.

Soil water is also present along with dissolved salts and makes up the soil solution.
This soil solution (water plus dissolved salts) acts as an important medium for supplying
different essential nutrients for growing plants.

Soil Air

Air spaces or pore spaces (voids) in a soil consists of that portion of the soil
volume not occupied by soil solids, either mineral or organic.

During rainy season, water replaces air from the soil pore spaces, but as soon as
water disappeared by downward movement, surface evaporation and transpiration etc., air
gradually replaces the water as it is lost from the pore spaces. Soil air influence the growth
of the plans as well as the activity of different beneficial micro organisms present in soil.

Present condition of the Earth

Our earth is supposed to have been formed in similar manner. It must have been hot and
plastic when it was first formed. At present the outside of the earth is quite cool and solid but the
interior is very hot and in a fluid condition. The outer cool layer, which we know as the earth’s
crust rests upon a denser molten substratum in which various gases are dissolved at high pressure
Interior of Earth
The Earth Ball consists of 3 concentric rings namely Crust, Mantle and Core.
Crust: 5 to 56 km on the surface of Earth. Density of rocks is 2.6 to 3.0 g cc-1. Distance: 5 to 11
 km in oceans and 35 to 56 km in the continents. The crust has been divided into two sub-zones
called Sial and Sima. The Sial is a heterogeneous mixture of rocks. The Sima is a homogenous
plastic or semi-plastic concentric layer that behaves like a solid. The Sial floats on the Sima,
which in turn floats on the lower concentric layer called the Mantle.
Sial contains about 65-75 % silica. Aluminium is the next important element in the Sial,
represented by the most common rocks like granite, and rhyolite. Silica decreases to about 50-60
percent in the Sima where aluminium has largely been replaced by magnesium with minor
quantities of iron. Sima is represented by the most common rocks like basalt and gabbro at the
upper level and by olivine rich rocks at the lower level.
Mantle
A massive solid to semi solid layer below the crust; 2900 km in thickness; comprises
mixed metals and silicate and basic rocks with density of 3.0 to 4.5 g cc-1.
Core
Innermost portion of Earth, 3500 km in thickness, contains molten metals like Nickel, iron;
average density: 9.0 to 12.0 g cc-1.
Exterior of Earth
Solid lithosphere, Liquid hydrosphere and gaseous atmosphere. The atmosphere is of
320 km above the lithosphere / hydrosphere. (70% of Earths surface is covered by water
(Hydrosphere).

Composition of atmospheric air

By volume (%) By weight (%)

N2 78.08 76.5
O2 20.9 23.1
CO2 0.033 0.04
Other gases 0.93 1.36

Hydrosphere
It is the layer of water surrounding the lithosphere. It is present in the form of seas and
oceans. It covers 70% of the earth leaving only about 30% above sea level. The surface of the
waters of the various seas is in one level in contrast with the surface of the land. This surface is
known as the sea level.
The seawater has a higher specific gravity than terrestrial water due to the salts it contains
in solution. The average density is 1.026, but it varies slightly from place to place. Sea water
contains 3.5% salts (minerals) It is least dense at the places where river enters the sea and very
heavy at places where evaporation is high.
Lithosphere
It is the inner most body within the gaseous and watery envelops. That portion of the
lithosphere, which rises above the seawater, is visible to us and is known as land. The land is
only about ¼th of the total surface of the earth. Most of this land is situated in the northern
hemisphere. The lithosphere consists of two portions, viz.,
1. The upper or outer cool solid surface.
2. The inner hot and molten mass.
It is the heaviest of the three spheres. Its mean density is 5.5 compared to that of water as
one. The outer crust has a density of about 2.5 to 3.0, while the inside core, consists of much
heavier materials.
The outer solid layer, called as the earth’s crust is estimated to be about 10 to 20 miles
thick. It consists of the various rocks together with a more or less thin mantle of soil enveloping
them. It is on this crust that life, both animal and plant sustains. The inner mass, which forms the
interior of the earth, is in molten condition. According to one belief, the whole of the inner core
is a molten mass of materials, upto the centre. According to another view, the interior of the earth
consists of a molten magma, about 50 to 100 miles thick, surrounding a gaseous centre. A
gradation exists from the central gaseous nucleus, through the intermediate molten mass, to the
outer solid crust.
The interior of the earth is intensely hot and is at the same time under enormous pressure.
There is progressive increase in temperature with depth. Though, the increase is not uniform at
all depths and all places, there is a rise of 1oF for every 64 feet on an average. Assuming the
temperature to increase at this rate, at a depth of 25 to 50 miles, it should be sufficiently high to
melt all substances known to us. This indicates that the interior of the earth is in molten condition
Composition of earth crust
The Earth’s crust is principally compassed of mineral matter. This mineral matter is made
up of various elements combined together to form compounds. Some elements exist as such
without forming compounds. Almost all the elements known to us at present, except the inert
gases, are present in the earth’s crust. The elements do not exist in the earth’s crust as such. Each
element is in combination with one or more other elements to form definite chemical compounds
known as minerals. Many of these minerals in turn combine together to form aggregates, which
we know as rocks. Almost all the mineral mater is present in the form of rocks in the earth’s
crust. Rock is composed of elements, which in turn are made up of atoms. Out of 106 elements
knows, 8 are sufficiently abundant as to constitute about 99 percent by weight of the Earth’s
Crust (upto 16 Km). The elements are geochemically distributed into five main groups based on
their bonding characters.
 Lithophile elements- which ionize readily or form stable oxyanions, viz. O,Si, Ti, Fe,
Mn, A1, H, Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs, Be, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba, B, Ga, Ge, Sn, Sc, Y, F,C1, Br, I, C,
HF,Th, P,V, Nb, Ta, Cr,W, U, Zr, (Mo), (Cu), (Zn), (Pb), (T1), (As), (Sb), (Bi), (S), (Se),
(Te), (Ni), (Co) and rare earths.
 Chalcophile element – which tend to form covalent bonds with sulphide, viz, S,Se, Te,
(Fe), Ni, Co, Cu,Zn, Pb, Mo, Ag,Sb,(Sn), Cd, In,T1,Pb, As,Bi, Re, (Mn), (Ga) and Ge).
 Siderophile elements – which readily form metallic bonds, viz, Fe, Ni, Co,Ru, Rh,Pd, Ir,
Os and Au.
 Atmosphile elements- which tend to remain in atmospheric gases, viz. N, (O) He, Ne,
Ar, Kr, Xe.
 Biophile elements- which tend to be associated with living organisms, viz. C,H,O,N,
P,S,C1, I, B, Ca, Mg, K, Na, Mn, Fe, Zn, Cu, Ag, Mo, Co, Ni, Au, Be, Cd, Se, T1,Sn, Pb,
As and V.
Element present in the earth crust
Element Amount

Oxygen 46.60

Non-metalic 75 % of earth crust

Silicon 27.72

Aluminium 8.16

Iron 5.00

Calcium 3.50 25% of earth’s crust

Metals
Sodium 2.83

Magnesium 2.09

Potassium 2.59

9
 3. ROCKS

Definition, Formation and Classification

Igneous, Sedimentary and Metamorphic

Rocks

Rocks are the materials that form the essential part of the Earth’s solid crust. A rock may
be defined as a hard mass of mineral matter comprising two or more rock forming minerals.
Petrology (in Greek, petra means rock, logos means science) deals with science of rocks. It
consists of

 Petrography which deals with the description of rocks.

 Petrogenesis which is the study of the origin of rocks.

Formation of rocks:

 Cooling and consolidation of molten magma within or on the surface of earth

results in the formation of Igneous or Primary rocks
 Disintegration and decomposition lead to the breaking down of pre-existing rocks.
Transportation and cementation of primary rocks results in the formation of
Sedimentary or Secondary rocks
 The primary and the secondary rocks when subjected to earth’s movement and to
high temperature and pressure are altered to new rocks called Metamorphic
rocks

Classification of rocks

According to the mode of formation the rocks are divided into the following three
main classes.

 Igneous or Primary rocks

 Sedimentary or Secondary rocks

 Metamorphic rocks
1. Igneous rocks (primary or massive rocks)

These are first formed in the earth crust due to the solidification of molten
magma. They are the source of parent material for other rocks and ultimately for soils.

Based on the mode of origin Igneous rocks are classified as

Extrusive rocks (or volcanic rocks)

 These rocks are formed due to the consolidation of magma on the

surface of the earth. The magma, when flows on the Earth surface are
called LAVA. eg. Basalt
Intrusive rocks (or plutonic rocks)

 These rocks are produced due to solidification of magma below the

surface of the earth. These intrusive rocks solidifies at greater depths.
eg. Granite.

Based on chemical composition Igneous rocks may be divided into

Acid rocks : > 65% silica (Granite, Rhyolite)

Sub acid rocks : 60-65% silica (Syenite and Trachyte)
Sub basic rocks : 55-60% silica (Diorite and Andesite)
Basic rocks : 45-55% silica (Gabbro, Basalt)
2. Sedimentary rocks (Clastic or stratified rocks)

The sedimentary rocks are formed from sediments, derived from the breaking
down of pre-existing rocks. The sediments are transported to new places and deposited in
new arrangements and cemented to form secondary rocks. Sediments may contain
various size particles cemented together by substances like SiO2, Fe2O3 or lime. These
rocks are called as clastic rocks. Stratification is the most common feature of these rocks
and are also termed as stratified rocks.
 Based on the origin the sedimentary rocks are classified as

1. Residual : Laterite

2. Transported

a. Deposited as solids in suspension : Sandstone, shale

b. Deposited by chemical precipitation : Limestone, ironstone

c. Deposited through agency of organic matter : Peat, Phosphatic
deposits

Based on the grain size sedimentary rocks are classified as

1. Rocks with boulder pebbles sized minerals (Rudaceous) : Conglomerate

2. Rocks with sand size particles (Arenaceous) : Sandstone

3. Rocks with silt size particles (silt rocks) : Siltstone

4. Rocks with clay size particles (Argillaceous) : Shale

3. Metamorphic rocks

These are formed from igneous and sedimentary rocks under the influence of
heat, pressure, chemically active liquids and gases. Changes may occur in mineral
composition of rocks or texture or both. The change due to water is called
hydrometamorphism, due to heat is thermometamorphism and due to pressure is called
dynamometamorphism.

Sand stone : Quartizite

Shale : Slate/mica, schist

Lime stone : Marble

Granite : granite gneiss

Dolerite : Hornblende gneiss

Relative abundance of rocks in earth’s crust

Composition of Earth’s crust as a whole

Igneous Rocks - 95%

Sedimentary Rocks - 5%

- Shales - (4.0%)

- Sandstones - (0.75%)

- Limestones - (0.025%)

Composition of the upper 5 km of the Earth’s crust

Sedimentary Rocks
Shales - 52%
Sandstones - 15% (74%)
Limestones and dolomite - 7%

Igneous Rocks
Granite - 15% (18%)
Basalt - 3%

Others - 8% (8%)

Total 100 100

4. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF IMPORTANT ROCKS
Mineralogical Composition
Igneous Rocks

[Link] Rocks Origin Essential Common Average Remarks

minerals minerals specific
gravity

i. Granite Plutonic Quartz Hornblende, 2.64 Light

holocrystalline magnetite, coloured
(20 to 30%)
mica white or
reddish

ii. Syenite Plutonic Quartz, Hornblende, 2.80 Light

Holocrystalline orthoclase magnetite, coloured
biotite white or
reddish

iii. Diorite Plutonic Quartz Hornblende, 2.85 Darker

Holocrystalline magnetite,
biotite

iv Gabbro Plutonic Labradorite, Hornblende, 3.0 Blackish

Holocrystalline augite, ilmenite
olivine

v. Dolerite Hypabasal Labradorite, Hornblende, 3.0 Blackish

augite, ilmenite
olivine

vi. Basalt Volcanic Labradorite, Hornblende, 3.0 Blackish

crystalline with augite, ilmenite
glassy mass olivine
Sedimentary rocks
[Link] Rock Mineral composition Colour and structure

1. Sandstone Mainly quartz with some CaCO3, iron Light to red, granular
oxides and clay

2. Shale Clay minerals, quartz and some organic Light to dark thinly
matter laminated

3. Limestone Mainly calcite with some dolomite, iron Light grey to yellow,
oxides, clay, phosphate and organic fine grained and compact
matter

Metamorphic rocks
[Link]. Rock Mineral composition Colour and structure
1. Gneiss Formed from granite Alternating light and dark colours,
banded and foliated
2. Schist Formed from basalt or As original rock, foliated
shale
3. Quartzite Formed from sandstone Light ot brown, compact and uniform
texture, foliated structure
4. Slate Formed from shale Grey to black, compact and uniform
texture, foliated structure
5. Marble Formed from lime stone Light red, green, black, compact fine to
coarse texture, foliated structure

Igneous Rock
 [Link]

Definition, occurrence Classification of primary minerals

Mineral:

A mineral is a naturally occurring inorganic solid with a definite chemical

composition and a crystalline structure. More than 90% of all of the minerals in the
Earth’s Crust are made up of compounds containing Silicon and Oxygen, the two most
abundant elements on Earth. There are over 2000 minerals on Earth, but only 100 are
commonly found. 30 minerals make up the majority of the rocks on Earth.

A mineral, by definition, must satisfy five conditions:

It must be naturally occurring.

It must be inorganic.
It must be a solid element or compound.
It must have a definite composition.
It must have a regular internal crystal structure

Occurrence:
Of the 2000 known minerals, only few occur in abundance in the Earth crust.
The relative abundance of important rock forming minerals is given below:
Minerals (arranged in the order of Important constituents Percent
their crystallization) distribution

Primary minerals

Ferro magnesium minerals

Ortho-ino silicates 16.8

Olivine Fe, Mg

Pyroxenes Ca, Na, Fe, Mg

Amphiboles Ca, Na, Fe, Mg, Al, OH

 Phyllo Silicates 3.6

Biotite K, Fe, Mg, Al, OH

Muscovite K, Al, OH

Non-Ferro Magnesium minerals

Tecto Silicates

Feldspars 61.0

Anorthite Ca, Al

Albite Na, Al

Orthoclase K, Al

Quartz

Secondary minerals

Clay minerals Na, K, Ca 11.6

Others Mg, Fe, Al, OH 6.0

Formation of minerals

 When the molten magma solidifies, the different elements present in it freely
arrange themselves in accordance with attractive forces and geometric form.

 The earth’s crust contains dominant amount of oxygen (46.60%) followed by

silicon (27.72%).

 In order to achieve neutrality between the negatively – charged oxygen and the
positively – charged silicon, there would be a greater tendency for silicon and oxygen
to combine to form the basic compound, called the silicon – oxygen tetrahedron
(SiO4)4-.

 This explains the dominance (>90%) of silicate minerals in the earth’s crust.
  Geometrically, it is possible to arrange only 4 oxygen anions around a central
silicon cation so that all are touching each other. This is the arrangement of a
[Link] amount of charge carried by silicon ion is 4+ and by oxygen is 2-. In
order to attain neutrality, one silicon (4+) ion would combine with two oxygen ion (2
x 2-) to form SiO2 but geometrically stable structure is formed when 1 silicon
combines
o with 4 oxygen ions to form tetrahedron (SiO4)4- which carries a net negative
charge of 4-.

The silicate tetrahedron (SiO4)4- is the fundamental building block of all the silicate
minerals

The Si-O bonds are very strong with mixed covalent and ionic character.
Classification of minerals

i. Based on the mode of origin

Primary mineral: A mineral that forms the original component of the rock is
known as the primary mineral eg. Feldspar, Hornblende, Mica, Quartz etc;

Secondary mineral: A mineral that has been formed, deposited or introduced as

a result of subsequent changes in the rock is known as secondary mineral. Eg: Limonite,
Gibbsite etc., and clay minerals like Kaolinite, Montmorillonite etc.,

ii. Based on its importance or amount

Essential mineral: Those minerals which form the chief constituents of a rock,
and are known as essential minerals. They are present in large quantities varying from
95-98% eg. Calcite and Silicate minerals.

Accessory minerals: Those minerals which occur only in small quantities and
whose presence / absence is of no consequence as far as the character of the rock is
concerned is called accessory minerals. Eg. Tourmaline, magnetite, pyrites etc

Silicate minerals

Ferro magnesian silicate minerals

Inosilicates (Pyroxenes and amphiboles)

The pyroxenes and amphiboles are two groups of ferromagnesian minerals. The
structure consists of long chains of linked silica tetrahedra. The pyroxenes consist of a
single chain (2 oxygen shared in each tetrahedron) whereas amphiboles consist of double
chains (alternately 2 and 3 oxygen atoms share the successive tetrahedra). These chain
silicates are sometimes referred to inosilicates
 Pyroxene Amphibole

Phyllosilicates

The phyllosilicates are an important group of soil – forming minerals and are
represented by micas (biotite, muscovite). They have sheet structure of tetrahedra where
each silicon ion shares three oxygen ions with adjacent silicon ion to form a honey –
comb like pattern. The fourth unshared oxygen ion of each tetrahedron stands above the
plane of all others. The basic structural unit of phyllosilicates is formed by the
condensation of two sheets of silicon-tetrahedra with one sheet of aluminum or
magnesium octahedron.
Non Ferro magnesian minerals

Tectosilicates: The most common minerals of this group are feldspars and quartz.

Feldspars:

Feldspars are aluminosilicates of K, Na and Ca. The feldspar structure consists of

tetrahedral which are attracted by sharing each oxygen atom between
neighbouring tetrahedra.

The tetrahedra contain mainly Si ions with sufficient Al substitution. It belongs to

the group of minerals that are light in weight.

There are two groups of feldspars: (i) Potassium feldspars (KAlSi3O8) include
orthoclase and microcline. Orthoclase and microcline are more common in the
plutonic and metamorphic rocks.
 The potassium feldspars occur commonly in the silts and sands of soils and also
abundant in clay-size fractions of soil (ii) plagioclase feldspars- a series consisting
of solid solution of albite (NaAlSi3O8) high in sodium and anorthite
(CaAl2Si3O8) high in calcium.
Plagioclase weathers more rapidly than orthoclase.

Quartz

It is very densely packed and occurs in a high degree of purity. It is strongly

resistant to weathering as the structure is densely packed, and free from any substitution.
It is the most abundant mineral next to feldspars.

Non-silicate minerals

Oxides: Haematite (Fe2O3)

Limonite (Fe2O3, 3H2O)
Goethite (FeO (OH) H2O)
Gibbsite (Al2O3H2O)

The red, yellow or brown colours in soils are due to the presence of goethite and
haematite, which occur as coatings on the surface of soil particles.

Carbonates : Calcite (CaCO3)

Dolomite (CaMgCO3)
Sulphates : Gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O)

Phosphates : Apatite (Rock phosphate Ca3 (PO4)2 - primary source of phosphorus

 SECONDARY MINERALS
Clay minerals

Amorphous minerals

Formation of secondarymineral

The secondary minerals are formed at the earth’s surface by weathering of the
pre-existing primary minerals under variable conditions of temperature and pressure.
These clay minerals are of size <0.002 mm and are considered to be the most reactive
part of soil. Important soil properties like nutrient and water holding capacity are
controlled by clay minerals. These minerals are layered silicates consisting of silica
tetrahedron and aluminium octahedron.

1) 1 silicon tetrahedron + 1 aluminium octahedron = 1:1 clay mineral (Kaolinite)

2) 2: 1 non-expanding clay mineral i. Black mica (Biotite)
ii. White mica (Muscovite)
iii. Weathered mica (illite)
3) 2: 1 expanding clay mineral i. partially expanding (Vermiculite)
ii. Fully expanding (Montmorillonite)
4) 2: 2 clay mineral i. Chlorite

The common minerals (in descending order) as observed in the dominant soil
groups of India are

1. Alluvium derived soils : Illite, chlorite (intergrades)

Montmorillonite (Flood plains and basins),
Kaolinite.

2. Forest soils : Illite, chlorite (Vermiculite),

Montmorillonite, Kaolinite

3. Black (cotton) soils : Smectite, Illite, Chlorite / Chloritized

Intergrades

4. Desert soils : Illite, Attapulgite, Vermiculite

5. Red and lateritic soils : Kaolinite (gibbsite), Chlorite, Illite

 Structure of Clay Minerals

STH

AOH
AO
H
A
STH
STH

Kaolinite Montmorillonite
1 :1 type 2 :1 type

AOH

STH STH AOH

AOH
STH 4
STH
Illite Chlorite
(Muscovite) 2 :2 type

Amorphous mineral
A mineral is a solid material, made of one substance that occurs naturally on
Earth. Most of the common minerals are made of crystals. A Crystal is a solid formed by a
repeating, three-dimensional pattern of atoms, ions, or molecules and having fixed distances
between the different [Link] that do not grow in these regular or crystalline patterns
are called Amorphous solids. Eg. Allophane.
WEATHERING OF ROCKS AND MINERALS
Weathering
Physical, chemical and biological weathering

Weathering is the breakdown and alteration of rocks and minerals at or near the
Earth's surface by a set of physical, chemical and biological processes. Rock and soil is
altered physically by disintegrating and chemically by decomposing. Because weather
and climate occur at the earth's surface, the intensity of weathering decreases with depth
and most of it occur within less than a meter of the surface of soil and rock.

Weathering results in the formation of Regolith or Parent material.

Regolith is an unconsolidated residual mass of the weathering rock on the earth’s
surface or above the solid rocks.

Parent material: It is the regolith or at least it’s upper portion. May be defined as the
unconsolidated and more or less chemically weathered mineral material from which soils
are developed.

Weathering involves three processes

Physical (or) mechanical - disintegration

Chemical - decomposition
Biological - disintegration and decomposition

Different agents of weathering

Physical/ Mechanical Chemical Biological

(disintegration) (decomposition) (disintegration +
decomposition)

[Link] condition of rock [Link] [Link] & animals

[Link] in temperature [Link] 2. Higher plants & their roots

[Link] of H2O [Link] [Link] organisms

- fragmentation & transportation [Link]

- action of freezing [Link]

 - alternate wetting & drying [Link]
action of glaciers
Action of wind
Atmospheric electric phenomenon

The sequence of processes in the formation of soils is:

Weathering of rocks and minerals → formation of regolith or parent material →
formation of true soil from regolith.

Rock → Weathering → Regolith → soil forming factors and processes → True

soil

Two processes involved in the formation of soil are

i) Formation of regolith by breaking down (weathering) of the bed rock.

ii) The addition of organic matter through the decomposition of plant and animal
tissues, and reorganization of these components by soil forming processes to
form soil.
Physical weathering

Physical weathering:

Physical weathering refers to the disintegration and breaking down of rocks to

comparatively smaller pieces, with out producing any new substances

Factors influencing Physical weathering

Physical condition of rocks:

The permeability of rocks is the most important single factor. Coarse textured
(porous) sand stone weather more readily than a fine textured (almost solid)
basalt.

Unconsolidated volcanic ash weather quickly as compared to unconsolidated

coarse deposits such as gravels.
 Action of Temperature:

The variations in temperature exert great influence on the disintegration of rocks.

During day time, the rocks get heated up by the sun and expand.

At night, the temperature falls and the rocks get cooled and contract. This
alternate expansion and contraction weakens the surface of the rock and crumbles
it.
The minerals within the rock also vary in their rate of expansion and contraction.
The cubical expansion of quartz is twice as feldspar.

Dark coloured rocks are subjected to fast changes in temperature as compared to

light coloured rocks.

The differential expansion of minerals in a rock surface generates stress between

the heated surface and cooled un-expanded parts resulting in fragmentation of
rocks.

This process causes the surface layer to peel off from the parent mass and the rock
ultimately disintegrates. This process is called Exfoliation

Action of Water:
Water acts as a disintegrating, transporting and depositing agent.
i) Fragmentation and transport:
Water beats over the surface of the rock when the rain occurs and starts
flowing towards the ocean
Moving water has the great cutting and carrying force.
It forms gullies and ravines and carries the suspended soil material of variable
sizes with it.
Transporting power of water varies. It is estimated that the transporting power of
stream varies as the sixth power of its velocity i.e the greater the speed of water,
more is the transporting power and carrying capacity

Speed/Sec Carrying capacity

15 cm fine sand

30 cm gravel

1.2 m stones (1kg)

9.0 m boulders (several tons)

 The disintegration is greater near the source of river than its mouth
ii) Action of freezing:

Frost is much more effective than heat in producing physical weathering

o In cold regions, the water in the cracks and crevices freezes into ice and the
volume increases to one tenth

o As the freezing starts from the top there is no possibility of its upward
expansion. Hence, the increase in volume creates enormous out ward pressure
which breaks apart the rocks

Alternate wetting and Drying:

Some natural substances increase considerably in volume on wetting and shrink

on drying. (e.g.) smectite, montmorillonite

During dry summer/ dry weather - these clays shrink considerably forming deep
cracks or wide cracks.

On subsequent wetting, it swells.

This alternate swelling and shrinking / wetting or drying of clay enriched rocks
make them loose and eventually breaks

Action of glaciers:
In cold regions, when snow falls, it accumulates and changes into an ice sheet.

These big glaciers start moving owing to the change in temperature and/or
[Link] moving, these exert tremendous pressure over the rock on which they
pass and carry the loose materials

These materials get deposited on reaching the warmer regions, where its
movement stops with the melting of ice

Action of wind:
Wind has an erosive and transporting effect. Often when the wind is laden with
fine material viz., fine sand, silt or clay particles, it has a serious abrasive effect
and the sand laden winds itch the rocks and ultimately breaks down under its
force
The dust storm may transport tons of material from one place to another. The
 shifting of soil causes serious wind erosion problem and may make cultivated
land as degraded
(e.g) Rajasthan deserts

vi) Atmospheric electrical phenomenon

It is an important factor causing break down during rainy season and lightning
breaks up rocks and or widens cracks

Effect of physical weathering

* Increase in the surface area of the rocks

II. Chemical Weathering

Decomposition of rocks and minerals by various chemical processes is called
chemical weathering. It is the most important process for soil formation.
Chemical weathering takes place mainly at the surface of rocks and minerals with
disappearance of certain minerals and the formation of secondary products (new
materials). This is called chemical transformation.
Feldspar + water → clay mineral + soluble cations and anions
Chemical weathering becomes more effective as the surface area of the rock
increases. Since the chemical reactions occur largely on the surface of the rocks, smaller
the fragments, the greater the surface area per unit volume available for reaction. The
effectiveness of chemical weathering is closely related to the mineral composition of
rocks.
(e.g) quartz responds far slowly to the chemical attack than olivine or pyroxene.

Chemical Processes of weathering:

Hydration:
It refers to the chemical combination of water molecules with a particular
substance or mineral leading to a change in structure.
Soil forming minerals in rocks do not contain any water and undergo hydration
when exposed to humid conditions. Upon hydration there is swelling and increase in
volume of minerals. The minerals loose their luster and become soft. It is one of the most
common processes in nature and works with secondary minerals, such as aluminium
oxide and iron oxide minerals and gypsum.

a) 2Fe2O3 + 3HOH → 2 Fe2O3 . 3H2O

(Iron oxide) ( Limonite) (yellow)

b) Al2O3 + 3 HOH → Al2O3 . 3H2O

(Al. oxide) ( Hyd. Aluminium Oxide)

c) CaSO4 + 2H2O → CaSO4 . 2 H2O

(Anhydrite) (Gypsum)

d) 3([Link].SiO2) + 2H2O → 3MgO.2SiO2.2H2O + SiO2 + 3H2O

(Olivine) (Serpentine)
Hydrolysis:

It is the most important process in chemical weathering. It is due to the

dissociation of H2O into H+ and OH- ions which chemically combine with minerals and
bring about changes, such as exchange, decomposition of crystalline structure and
formation of new compounds. Water acts as a weak acid on silicate minerals.

KAlSi3O8 + H2O → HAlSi3O8 + KOH

(Orthoclase) (Acid silicate clay)

HAlSi3O8 + 8 HOH → Al2O3.3H2O + 6 H2SiO3

(recombination) ([Link]) (Silicic acid)

This reaction is important because of two reasons.

Clay, bases and silicic acid - the substances formed in these reactions - are
available to plants

Water often containing CO2 (absorbed from atmosphere), reacts with the minerals
directly to produce insoluble clay minerals, positively charged metal ions (Ca++,
Mg++, Na+, K+) and negatively charged ions (OH-, HCO3-) and some soluble silica
– all these ions are made available for plant growth.
Solution:
Some substances present in the rocks are directly soluble in water. The soluble
substances are removed by the continuous action of water and the rock no longer remains
solid and form holes, rills or rough surface and ultimately falls into pieces or
decomposes. The action is considerably increased when the water is acidified by the
dissolution of organic and inorganic acids. (e.g) halides, NaCl
NaCl + H2O Na+, Cl- H2O (dissolved ions with water)
Carbonation:
Carbon di oxide when dissolved in water it forms carbonic acid.
2H2O + CO2 H2CO3
This carbonic acid attacks many rocks and minerals and brings them into solution.
The carbonated water has an etching effect upon some rocks, especially lime stone. The
removal of cement that holds sand particles together leads to their disintegration.
CaCO3 + H2CO3 Ca(HCO3)2
(calcite) slightly soluble (Ca bi carbonate) readily soluble
Oxidation:

The process of addition and combination of oxygen to minerals is called

oxidation. The absorption is usually from O2 dissolved in soil water and that present in
atmosphere. The oxidation is more active in the presence of moisture and results in
hydrated oxides.(e.g.) minerals containing Fe and Mg.
4FeO (Ferrous oxide) + O2 2Fe2O3 ( Ferric oxide)
2Fe2O3 (Haematite) + 3H2O 2Fe2O3 .3H2O (Limonite)

Reduction:

The process of removal of oxygen and the reverse of oxidation is called reduction.
It is equally important in changing soil colour to grey, blue or green as ferric iron is
converted to ferrous iron compounds. Under the conditions of excess water or water
logged condition (less or no oxygen), reduction takes place.
2Fe2O3 (Haematite) - O2 4FeO (Ferrous oxide)
Oxidized form Reduced form
Weathering sequence:
It refers to the generalized order of weathering of minerals. Quartz (most
resistant) > muscovite > K feldspar > Na and Ca feldspar > biotite, hornblende, augite >
olivine > dolomite and calcite > gypsum (least resistant)
In conclusion, during chemical weathering igneous and metamorphic rocks are
involved in the destruction of primary minerals and the production of secondary
minerals.
In sedimentary rocks, which are made up of primary and secondary minerals,
weathering acts initially to destroy relatively weak bonding agents and the
particles are freed. These particles are then individually subjected to weathering.

Biological Weathering

Unlike physical and chemical weathering, the biological or living agents are
responsible for both decomposition and disintegration of rocks and minerals. The
biological life is mainly controlled by the prevailing environment.

Man and Animals

The action of man in disintegration of rocks is well known as he cuts rocks to

build dams, channels and construct roads and buildings. All these activities result
in increasing the surface area of the rocks for attack of chemical agents and
accelerate the process of rock decomposition.

A large number of animals, birds, insects and worms, by their activities make
holes in them and thus help in weathering.

In tropical and sub tropical regions, ants and termites build galleries and passages
and carry materials from lower to upper surface and excrete acids. The oxygen
and water with many dissolved substances, reach every part of the rock through
the cracks, holes and galleries and thus brings about speedy disintegration.
Rabbits, by burrowing in to the ground, destroy soft rocks.

Moles, ants and bodies of the dead animals, provides substances which react with
minerals and aid in decaying process.
 The earthworms pass the soil through the alimentary canal and thus brings about
physical and chemical changes in soil material.

Higher Plants and Roots

The roots of trees and other plants penetrate into the joints and crevices of the
rocks. As they grew, they exert a great disruptive force and the hard rock may
break apart. (e.g.) peepal tree growing on walls/ rocks.

The grass roots form a sponge like mass, prevent erosion and conserve moisture
and thus allow moisture and air to enter in to the rock for further action.

Some roots penetrate deep into the soil and may open some sort of drainage
channel. The roots running in crevices in lime stone and marble produces acids.
These acids have a solvent action on carbonates

The dead roots and plant residues decompose and produce carbon dioxide which
is of great importance in weathering
Micro- organisms

In early stages of mineral decomposition and soil formation, the lower forms of
plants and animals like, mosses, bacteria and fungi and actinomycetes play an
important role.

They extract nutrients from the rock and N from air and live with a small quantity
of water. In due course of time, the soil develops under the cluster of these micro-
organisms.

These organisms are closely associated with the decay of plant and animal
remains and thus liberate nutrients for the next generation plants and also produce
CO2 and organic compounds which aid in mineral decomposition.
Relative stabilities of common minerals under weathering
8 &9 SOIL FORMING FACTORS
Active and Passive soil forming factors
The soil formation is the process of two consecutive stages.
The weathering of rock (R) into Regolith
The formation of true soil from Regolith

The formation of true soil from regolith takes place by the combined action of soil
forming factors and processes.
The first step is accomplished by weathering (disintegration & decomposition)
The second step is associated with the action of Soil Forming Factors

Factors of soil formation

Dokuchaiev (1889) established that the soils develop as a result of the action of
soil forming factors viz., S = f ( p, cl, o )
Further, Jenny (1941) formulated the following equation
S = f (cl, o, r, p, t, …)
Where,
cl - Environmental climate
o - Organisms and vegetation (biosphere)
r - Relief or topography
p - Parent material
t - Time
- additional unspecified factors
The five soil forming factors act simultaneously at any point on the surface of the
earth to produce soil

Active soil forming factors:

i) Climate, ii) organism (vegetation or biosphere)
These factors supply energy and act upon other soil forming factors
Passive soil forming factors
i) Parent material ii) Relief iii) Time
The passive soil forming factors are those which represent the source of soil
forming mass and conditions affecting it. These provide a base on which the active soil
forming factors work or act for the development of soil.
Parent Material:
It is that mass (consolidated material) from which the soil has formed.

Sedentary: Formed in original place. It is the residual parent material. The parent
material differ as widely as the rocks
Transported: the parent materials are transported from their place of origin. They are
named according to the main force responsible for the transport and redeposition.
a) by gravity - Colluvial
b) by water - Alluvial
by glacial ice - Moraine
by lake water - Lacustrine
e) by wind - Aeolian (sandy texture)
- Loess (silty texture)

The soils developed on such transported parent materials bear the name of the
parent material; viz. Alluvial soils from alluvium, colluvial soils from colluvium etc. In
the initial stages, however, the soil properties are mainly determined by the kind of parent
material.

Endodynamomorphic soils: Soils wherein the composition of parent material

subdues the effects of climate and vegetation. These soils develop under the influence of
parent material.

Ectodynamomorphic soils: Development of normal profile under the influence

of climate and vegetation.

Soil properties as influenced by parent material:

Different parent materials affect profile development and produce different soils,
especially in the initial stages.
Acid igneous rocks (like granite, rhyolite) produce light-textured soils (Alfisols).
 Basic igneous rocks (basalt), alluvium or colluvium derived from limestone or
basalt, produce fine-textured cracking-clay soils (Vertisols).

Basic alluvium or aeolian materials produce fine to coarse-textured soils (Entisols

or Inceptisols).
The nature of the elements released during the decaying of rocks has a specific
role in soil formation. (e.g.) Si and Al forms the skeleton for the production of
secondary clay minerals.
Iron and Manganese are important for imparting red colour to soils and for
oxidation and reduction phenomena.
Sodium and Potassium are important dispersing agents for clay and humus
colloids.
Calcium and Magnesium have a flocculating effect and result in favorable and
stable soil structure for plant growth.

Relief or Topography:

The relief and topography sometimes are used as synonymous terms. They denote
the configuration of the land surface. The topography refers to the differences in
elevation of the land surface on a broad scale.

The prominent types of topography designations, as given in FAO Guidelines

(1990) are:

Land surface Slope

1. Flat to almost flat 0–2%

2. Gently undulating 2-5%
3. Undulating 5 – 10 %
4. Rolling 10 – 15 %
5. Hilly 15 –3 0 %
6. Steeply dissect > 30 % with moderate range of elevation (<300 m)
7. Mountainous > 30% with great range of elevation (>300 m)
Soil formation on flat to almost flat position:

On level topographic positions, almost the entire water received through rain
percolates through the soil. Under such conditions, the soils formed may be considered as
representative of the regional climate. They have normal solum with distinct horizons

Soil formation on undulating topography:

The soils on steep slopes are generally shallow, stony and have weakly-developed
profiles with less distinct horizonation. It is due to accelerated erosion, which removes
surface material before it has the time to develop.

Soil formation in depression:

The depression areas in semi-arid and sub humid regions reflect more moist
conditions than actually observed on level topographic positions due to the additional
water received as runoff. Such conditions (as in the Tarai region of the Uttar Pradesh)
favour more vegetative growth and slower rate of decay of organic remains. This results
in the formation of comparatively dark- coloured soils rich in organic matter (Mollisols).

Soil formation and Exposure / Aspect:

Topography affects soil formation by affecting temperature and vegetative growth

through slope exposures (aspect). The southern exposures (facing the sun) are warmer
and subject to marked fluctuations in temperature and moisture. The northern exposures,
on the other hand are cooler and more humid. The eastern and western exposures occupy
intermediate position in this respect.

3. Time:
Soil formation is a very slow process requiring thousands of years to develop a
mature pedon. The period taken by a given soil from the stage of weathered rock (i.e.
regolith) up to the stage of maturity is considered as time. The matured soils mean the
soils with fully developed horizons (A, B, C). It takes hundreds of years to develop an
inch of soil. The time that nature devotes to the formation of soils is termed as Pedologic
Time.

It has been observed that rocks and minerals disintegrate and/or decompose at
different rates; the coarse particles of limestone are more resistant to disintegration than
those of sandstone. However, in general, limestone decomposes more readily than
sandstone (by chemical weathering).

Weathering stages in soil formation

Stages Characteristic
1. Initial Un weathered parent material
2. Juvenile Weathering started but much of the original material still un weathered
3. Virile Easily weatherable minerals fairly decomposed; clay content increased,
slowly weatherable minerals still appreciable
4. Senile Decomposition reaches at a final stage; only most resistant minerals survive
5. Final Soil development completed under prevailing environments

The soil properties also change with time, for instance nitrogen and organic matter
contents increase with time provided the soil temperature is not high.
CaCO3 content may decrease or even lost with time provided the climatic conditions
are not arid
In humid regions, the H+ concentration increases with time because of chemical
weathering.

B. Active Soil Forming Factors

The active soil forming factors are those which supply energy that acts on the
mass for the purpose of soil formation. These factors are climate and vegetation
(biosphere).
1. Climate
Climate is the most significant factor controlling the type and rate of soil formation.
The dominant climates recognized are:
 Arid climate: The precipitation here is very less than the water-need. Hence the
soils remain dry for most of the time in a year.

Humid climate: The precipitation here is much more than the water need. The
excess water results in leaching of salt and bases followed by translocation of clay
colloids.
Oceanic climate: Moderate seasonal variation of rainfall and temperature.

Mediterranean climate: Moderate precipitation in winters and summers are dry

and hot.

Continental climate: Warm summers and extremely cool or cold winters.

Temperate climate: Cold humid conditions with warm summers.

Tropical and subtropical climate: Warm to hot humid with isothermal conditions
in the tropical zone.

Climate affects the soil formation directly and indirectly.

Directly, climate affects the soil formation by supplying water and heat to react
with parent material.

Indirectly, it determines the fauna and flora activities which serve a source of
energy in the form of organic matter. This energy acts on the rocks and minerals in
the form of acids and salts are released.

Precipitation and temperature are the two major climatic elements which contribute
most to soil formation.

Precipitation:

Precipitation is the most important among the climatic factors. The rain water
percolates and moves from one part of the parent material to another.
It carries with it substances in solution and suspension.
The substances so carried are redeposited in another part or completely removed
from the material.
The soluble substances move with it and are translocated to the upper layer.
Thus rainfall brings about a redistribution of soluble substances in the soil body.
Temperature
Temperature is another climatic agent influencing the process of soil formation.
High temperature hinders the process of leaching and causes an upward
movement of soluble salts.
High temperature favors rapid decomposition of organic matter and increase
microbial activities in soil while low temperatures favour the accumulation of
organic matter by slowing down the process of decomposition.
Temperature thus controls the rate of chemical and biological reactions taking
place in the parent material.

Jenny (1941) computed that in the tropical regions the rate of weathering proceeds
three times faster than in temperate regions and nine times faster than in arctic.

Organism & Vegetation

Organism

The active components of soil ecosystem are plants, animals, microorganisms and
man.

The role of microorganisms in soil formation is related to the humification and

mineralization of vegetation

The action of animals especially burrowing animals is to dig and mix-up the soil
mass

Man influences the soil formation through his manipulation of natural vegetation,
agricultural practices etc.

Compaction by traffic of man and animals decrease the rate of water infiltration
into the soil and thereby increase the rate of runoff and erosion.

Vegetation

The roots of the plants penetrate into the parent material and act both
mechanically and chemically.

They facilitate percolation and drainage and bring about greater dissolution of
minerals through the action of CO2 and acidic substances secreted by them.

The decomposition and humification of the materials further adds to the

solubilization of minerals.
Forests – reduces temperature, increases humidity, reduce evaporation and
increases precipitation.
Grasses reduce runoff and result greater penetration of water in to the parent
material.
 SOIL PROFILE
Profile description
Master horizons
Pedon and polypedon

Definition of soil profile:

The vertical section of the soil showing the various layers from the surface to the
unaffected parent material is known as a soil profile. The various layers are known as
horizons.

Soil Horizons (layers):

Soil is made up of distinct horizontal layers; these layers are called horizons. They
range from rich, organic upper layers (humus and topsoil) to underlying rocky layers
(subsoil, regolith and bedrock). The master horizons are O, A, B and C horizons.

Most soils have a distinct profile or sequence of horizontal layers. Generally,

these horizons result from the processes of chemical weathering, eluviation, illuviation,
and organic decomposition. Up to five layers can be present in a typical soil: O, A, B, C,
and R horizons.

Figure: Typical layers found in a soil profile.

 The O horizon is the topmost layer of most soils. It is composed mainly of plant
litter at various levels of decomposition and humus.

A horizon is found below the O layer. This layer is composed primarily of

mineral particles which has two characteristics: it is the layer in which humus and other
organic materials are mixed with mineral particles, and it is a zone of translocation from
which eluviation has removed finer particles and soluble substances, both of which may
be deposited at a lower layer. Thus the A horizon is dark in color and usually light in
texture and porous. The A horizon is commonly differentiated into a darker upper horizon
or organic accumulation, and a lower horizon showing loss of material by eluviation.

The B horizon is a mineral soil layer which is strongly influenced by illuviation.

Consequently, this layer receives material eluviated from the A horizon. The B horizon
also has a higher bulk density than the A horizon due to its enrichment of clay particles.
The B horizon may be colored by oxides of iron and aluminum or by calcium carbonate
illuviated from the A horizon.

The C horizon is composed of weathered parent material. The texture of this

material can be quite variable with particles ranging in size from clay to boulders. The C
horizon has also not been significantly influenced by the pedogenic processes,
translocation, and/or organic modification.

The final layer in a typical soil profile is called the R horizon. This soil layer
simply consists of unweathered bedrock.
Soil profile – Nomenclature of soil horizons

• Master horizons - O, A, E, B, C,R

• Subordinate horizons - t, a, i, e, o, b, e, …..etc.

• Transitional horizons - AE, EA, EB, BE ….etc.

Special Features

Pedon: A pedon is the smallest volume that can be recognized as a soil

individual. It has three dimensions and its area ranges from 1 to 10 square meters,
depending on the variability in the horizons. The shape of the pedon is roughly
hexagonal. A soil volume that consists of more than one pedon is termed a polypedon
 Polypedon: A polypedon is defined as a continuous similar pedons bounded on
all sides by "not-soil”or by pedons of unlike characters. It is a real physical soil body
which has a minimum area of more than 1 sq. km and an unspecified maximum area.
Regolith: The unconsolidated materials above the parent rock including A, B and
C horizons are called the weathered soil material including O, A and B horizons are
called solum.

Subordinate horizons – Lower case letters are used to designate the subordinate horizons

Letter Distinction Letter Distinction

a Organic matter highly decomposed o Accumulation of Fe and Al oxides
b Buried soil horizon p Plowing or other disturbance
c Concretions or nodules q Accumulation of silica
d Dense unconsolidated material r Weathered or soft bed rock
e Organic matter intermediate s Illuvial accumulation of organic
decomposition matter and Fe and Al oxides
f Frozen soil t Accumulation of silicate clays
g Strong gleying (mottling) v Plinthite (high iron, red material)
h Illuvial accumulation of organic w Distinctive colour or structure
matter
i Organic matter slightly decomposed x Fragipan (high bulk density)
k Accumulation of carbonates y Accumulation of gypsum
m Cementation z Accumulation of soluble salts
n Accumulation of sodium

Lithological Discontinuity

When two or more genetically unrelated (contrasting) materials are present in a profile as
in the case of alluvial or colluvial soils, then the phenomenon is known as lithological
discontinuity. This is indicated by the use of Roman letters as prefixes to the master horizons.
11. FUNDAMENTAL SOIL FORMING PROCESSES

Eluviation, Illuviation

The basic soil forming processes involved in soil formation (Simonson, 1959)
includes the following.

Gains or Additions of water, mostly as rainfall, organic and mineral matter to the
soil.

Losses of the above materials from the soil.

Transformation of mineral and organic substances within the soil.

Translocation of soil materials from one point to another within the soil. It is

usually divided into two aspects. 1) movement in solution (leaching) and

Movement in suspension (eluviation) of clay, organic matter and hydrous oxides

A. Fundamental Soil Forming Processes

Eluviation:

It is the mobilization and translocation of certain constituents viz., Clay, Fe2O3,

Al2O3, SiO2, humus, CaCO3, other salts etc. from one point of soil body to
another.

Eluviation means washing out. It is the process of removal of constituents in

suspension or solution by the percolating water from the upper to lower layers.

The eluviation process involves mobilization and translocation of soil constituents

resulting in textural differences.

The horizon formed by the process of eluviation is termed as eluvial horizon (A2
or E horizon). Translocation depends upon relative mobility of elements and
depth of percolation.
 Illuviation:

The process of deposition of soil materials (removed from the eluvial horizon) in the
lower layer is termed as Illuviation.

The horizon formed by this process is termed as illuvial horizon (B-horizon,

especially Bt).

This is the horizon of gains having the property of stabilizing translocated clay
materials.
Horizonation:

It is the process of differentiation of soil in different horizons along the depth of

the soil body. The differentiation is due to the fundamental processes of eluviation and
illuviation.
Humification:
It is the process of transformation of raw organic matter into humus. It is
extremely a complex process involving various organisms.

First, simple compounds such as sugars and starches are attacked followed by
proteins and cellulose and finally very resistant compounds such as tannins, are decomposed
and the dark coloured substance, known as humus, is formed.

Podzolization and Laterization

Podzolization:

It is a process of soil formation resulting in the formation of Podzols and Podzolic

soils. The process operates under favorable combination of the following environments.

Climate: A cold and humid climate is most favorable for podzolization

Parent material: Siliceous (Sandy) material, having poor reserves of weatherable

minerals, favor the operation of podzolization as it helps in easy percolation of water.

Vegetation: Acid producing vegetation such as coniferous pines is essential

 Leaching and Translocation of Sesquioxides:

In the process of decomposition of organic matter various organic acids are

produced. The organic acids thus formed act with Sesquioxide and the remaining clay
minerals, forming organic- sesquioxide and organic clay complexes, which are soluble
and move with the percolating water to the lower horizons.

As iron and aluminium are removed, the A horizon gives a bleached grey or
ashy appearance. The Russians used the term Podzols (pod means under, the zola means
ash like i.e. ash-like horizon appearing beneath the surface horizon) for such soils.

To conclude, the Podzolization is a soil forming process which prevails in a cold

and humid climate where coniferous and acid forming vegetations dominate. The humus
and Sesquioxide become mobile and leached out from the upper horizon s and deposited
in the lower horizon
Laterization:

The term laterite is derived from the word later meaning brick or tile and was
originally applied to a group of high clay Indian soils found in Malabar hills of Kerala, Tamil
Nadu, Karnataka and Maharashtra.

It refers specifically to a particular cemented horizon in certain soils which when

dried, become very hard, like a brick.

Such soils (in tropics) when massively mixed with sesquioxides (iron and
aluminium oxides) to an extent of 70 to 80 per cent of the total mass, are called laterites or
latosols (Oxisols).

The soil forming process is called Laterization or Latozation.

Laterization is the process that removes silica, instead of sesquioxides from the
upper layers and thereby leaving sesquioxides to concentrate in the solum. The process
operates under the following conditions.

Climate: Unlike podzolization, the process of laterization operates most favorable in warm
and humid (tropical) climate with 2000 to 2500 mm rainfall and continuous high temperature
(25°C) throughout the year.

Natural vegetation: The rain forests of tropical areas are favorable for the process.
Parent Material: Basic parent materials having sufficient iron bearing ferromagnesian
minerals (Pyroxene, amphiboles, biotite and chlorite), which on weathering release iron that
are congenial for the development of laterites.
 11. SPECIFIC SOIL FORMING PROCESSES

Salinization and Alkalinization

Calcification and Decalcification
Carbonation and Gleization
Pedoturbation and humification

The basic pedologic processes provide a framework for later operation of more
specific processes

Salinization

 It is the process of accumulation of salts, such as sulphates and chlorides of

calcium, magnesium, sodium and potassium in soils in the form of a salty (salic)
horizon.

 It is quite common in arid and semi arid regions.

 It may also take place through capillary rise of saline ground water and by
inundation with seawater.

 Salt accumulation may also result from irrigation or seepage in areas of impeded
drainage.

Desalinization

 It is the process of removal of excess soluble salts from horizons that contained
enough soluble salts to impair the plant growth.

 Leaching is done by ponding water and improving the drainage conditions by

installing artificial drainage network.

Solonization or Alkalization

The process involves the accumulation of sodium ions on the exchange complex
 of the clay resulting in the formation of sodic soils (Solonetz).

All cations in solution are engaged in a reversible reaction with the exchange sites
on the clay and organic matter particles.

The reaction can be represented as:

[Link].2NaX Ca++ + Mg++ +2Na+ + X (3CO3 2-
Na2CO3 + MgCO3 +
CaCO3)
(Where X represents clay or organic matter exchange sites)

Solodization or Dealkalization

The process refers to the removal of Na+ from the exchange sites. This process
involves dispersion of clay. Dispersion occurs when Na+ ions become hydrated.

Much of the dispersion can be eliminated if Ca++ and or Mg++ ions are
concentrated in the water. These Ca and Mg ions can replace the Na on exchange
complex, and the salts of sodium are leached out as:

2NaX + CaSO4----------- Na2SO4 + CaX (leachable)

Calcification

It is the process of precipitation and accumulation of calcium carbonate (CaCO3)

in some part of the profile. The accumulation of CaCO3 may result in the
development of a calcic horizon.

Calcium is readily soluble in acidic soil water and/or when CO2 concentration is
high in root zone as:
CO2 + H2O → H2CO3
H2CO3 + Ca → Ca (HCO3)2 (soluble)
Ca (HCO3)2 → CaCO3 + H2O + CO2 (precipitates)

The process of precipitation after mobilization under these conditions is called

calcification.
 Decalcification
It is the reverse of calcification that is the process of removal of CaCO3 or
calcium ions from the soil by leaching
CaCO3 + CO2 + H2O → Ca(HCO3)2
(insoluble) (soluble)

Carbonation

It occurs when carbon dioxide interacts chemically with minerals. When carbon
dioxide is dissolved in water, it forms weak carbonic acid.

When carbonic acid comes in contact with the surface of the earth it dissolves
large masses of limestone, creating caves and caverns.

Other common terms associated with carbonation are sink holes, karst
topography, stalactites and stalagmites.

Gleization:

The term glei is of Russian origin means blue, grey or green clay.

The Gleization is a process of soil formation resulting in the development of a

gley horizon in the lower part of the soil profile above the parent material due to
poor drainage condition and where waterlogged conditions prevail. Such soils are
called hydromorphic soils.

The process is not particularly dependent on climate (high rainfall as in humid

regions) but often on drainage conditions.
Under such conditions, iron compounds are reduced to soluble ferrous forms.

The solubility of Ca, Mg, Fe, and Mn is increased and most of the iron exists as
Fe++ organo - complexes in solution or as mixed precipitate of ferric and ferrous
hydroxides.

This is responsible for the production of typical bluish to greyish horizon with
mottling of yellow and or reddish. brown colors

Pedoturbation:

Another process that may be operative in soils is pedoturbation. It is the process

of mixing of the soil. Mixing to a certain extent takes place in all soils. The most
common types of pedoturbation are: