Safety Science 187 (2025) 106866

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Safety Science
journal homepage: [Link]/locate/safety

The impact of the internet of things on health and safety performance at

work: An empirical study of Brazilian companies
Rafael ZORZENON * , Fabiane L. LIZARELLI , Daniel BRAATZ
Federal University of São Carlos, Department of Production Engineering, Rod. Washington Luiz, km 235, 13565 905 São Carlos, Brazil

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Industry 4.0 (I4.0) is an emerging topic, and its effects on Occupational Health and Safety (OHS) remain un-
Occupational health certain. The Internet of Things (IoT) is one technology used to monitor variables through sensors in the work-
Occupational safety place. By enabling the transmission, monitoring, and control of variables from both the environment and
Organizational factors
employees, IoT can affect workplace risks and OHS. This study aims to analyze and evaluate the impact of the IoT
The fourth industrial revolution
Survey
on workplace risks and OHS performance, considering organizational factors as moderators in the proposed
relationships. A survey was conducted with OHS specialists in Brazilian companies. Partial Least Squares
Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM), which is a multivariate statistical method was used for quantitative
data analysis. The results show that IoT significantly reduces workplace risks, which, in turn, positively impacts
OHS performance. Indirectly, by reducing workplace risks, IoT improves OHS performance. Additionally, the
results support that organizational factor mediate the relationship between environmental risks and OHS per-
formance and show that organizational factors positively influence OHS performance. The findings suggest that
managers should consider organizational factors to enhance OHS performance. The authors did not find
empirical studies linking IoT and OHS in the Brazilian context. This study addresses this gap and makes an
original contribution to the existing literature.

1. Introduction In the United States, work accidents increased by 2 % between 2017

and 2018, while work incidents, which include situations not necessarily
Occupational Health and Safety (OHS) is one organizational area accidental but affecting worker health and safety, rose by 13 % (Bureau
susceptible to technological advances (Cheng et al., 2022; Badri et al., of Labor Statistics, 2018). In 2021, the US recorded around 2.6 million
2018). It deals with issues related to health (both physical and mental), non-fatal workplace injuries and illnesses (Bureau of Labor Statistics
safety (preventing physical injuries), and people’s well-being (Hughes Employer Reported Workplace Injuries and Illnesses -, 2021). On
and Ferrett, 2016; Kadir and Broberg, 2020). Its focus includes miti- average, approximately 27,500 workers aged 25 to 44 die annually due
gating workplace-related illnesses and injuries and establishing and to workplace accidents in the US (Goetsch, 2015).
implementing standards to strengthen this field (Occupational Safety In Brazil, 612,920 work accidents were recorded in 2022, leading to
and Administration, 2018). expenses of about 7.4 billion Reals (BRL) in disability pensions and
The International Labor Organization (ILO International Labour work-related sickness benefits (Observatório Digital, 2023). Around 5 %
Organization Available online: [Link] to 7 % of work-related deaths in Brazil occur due to unsafe and un-
work/occupational-safety-and-health/WCMS_, 2023) estimates that healthy working conditions (Observatório Digital, 2023). Occupational
2.3 million people die each year from work accidents or occupational accidents and illnesses continue to have devastating impacts on com-
diseases. Around 360 million non-fatal work-related accidents occur panies, communities, and entire economies (Observatório Digital, 2023;
annually (Margheritti et al., 2022). According to the ILO, work-related Temidayo et al., 2018) and can represent up to 4 % of the global Gross
illnesses are the leading cause of worker deaths (ILO International La- Domestic Product (GDP) (International Labour Organization Safety and
bour Organization Available online: [Link] Health at Work Available online: [Link]
areas-of-work/occupational-safety-and-health/WCMS_, 2023). safety-and-health-at-work/lang–en/[Link] (accessed on 3

* Corresponding author at: Production Engineering Department, Federal University of São Carlos, (UFSCAR), Washington Luis Highway, km 235, Postal Box 676,
Postal Code 13, 565-905, São Carlos, Brazil.
E-mail addresses: rafaelzorzenon10@[Link] (R. ZORZENON), fabiane@[Link] (F.L. LIZARELLI), braatz@[Link] (D. BRAATZ).

[Link]
Received 8 November 2024; Received in revised form 7 February 2025; Accepted 21 March 2025
Available online 25 March 2025
0925-7535/© 2025 Elsevier Ltd. All rights are reserved, including those for text and data mining, AI training, and similar technologies.
R. ZORZENON et al. Safety Science 187 (2025) 106866

February, 2021). This issue is even more significant in a developing Wearable Sensors and Reducing Consequences of Occupational Fall
country like Brazil, where industry plays a crucial role in generating jobs Accidents Leveraging IoT; Springer International Publishing, 2019) and
and GDP (Pinto et al., 2023). indirectly improving OHS performance (e.g. (Madhavi et al., 2020;
The Industry 4.0 (I4.0), also called the fourth industrial revolution Papetti et al., 2020), necessitating more empirical research.
(Roblek et al., 2016), is a modern production model (Roblek et al., 2016; This study was conducted in Brazil, which is an emerging economy
Stock et al., 2018) driven by information and communication technol- (Pinto et al., 2023). The reduction of OHS problems (which are prevalent
ogies. It creates a highly technological environment (Min et al., 2019), in emerging countries) and the need to understand the impacts of
involving various technologies Filho et al., 2022; Marcon et al., 2022; technology application, as Brazilian industries must adopt technologies
with the Internet of Things (IoT) as a key technology in this model (Buer to stay competitive, could play a crucial role in reversing this situation
et al., 2018). IoT connects smart physical objects to the internet to ex- (Zorzenon et al., 2022). Additionally, organizational factors, which refer
change data and information (Ojra, 2019; Polak-Sopinska et al, 2019) to the internal characteristics of the organization (Liu and Cao, 2022),
and offers a wide range of applications (Khurshid et al., 2023), prom- such as communication and training (Alves et al., 2020), significantly
ising to significantly increase productivity, efficiency, and safety (Di influence safety performance (Eskandari et al., 2017). Generally, orga-
Rienzo et al., 2020). IoT can track, quantify, and predict work patterns nizational factors affect work accidents but are not well documented
on the factory floor, leading to the identification of hazards that might (Alves et al., 2020). According to Papetti et al. (Papetti et al., 2020),
have gone unnoticed before (Waqar et al., 2023). Barata and Da Cunha organizational factors influence OHS performance. Therefore, this study
(Barata and da Cunha, 2019) and Hurtado et al. (Hurtado et al., 2022) uses the work environment and organizational factors to analyze the
warn that I4.0 technologies could introduce new risks to workers, relationship between IoT and OHS performance.
compromising OHS. Considering the aforementioned context, the resulting research
From an OHS perspective, adopting IoT could improve the flow of questions are as follows:
safety information for managers and workers (Stefana et al., 2018),
provide immediate notifications in case of accident risks Di Rienzo et al., • RQ1. What is the impact of IoT on workplace risks?
2020, Rajendran et al., 2020; and collect environmental, process, and • RQ2. What impact do workplace risks have on OHS performance?
worker data to enhance OHS (Papetti et al., 2020; Ahmetoglu et al., • RQ3. Do workplace risks moderate the relationship between IoT and
2022). However, data privacy issues arising from IoT use are concerns OHS performance?
highlighted by Faramondi et al. (Faramondi et al., 2019), Mattsson, • RQ4. Do organizational factors mediate the relationship between IoT
Partini, and Fast-Berglund (Mattsson and Partini, 2016), and Polak- and workplace risks and the relationship between workplace risks
Sopinska et al, 2019, which could be disadvantages for OHS. Therefore, and OHS performance?
the positive aspects of adopting IoT could favor OHS, leading to
improved OHS performance Zorzenon et al., 2022. OHS performance To answer these research questions, we conducted a survey with
relates to an organization’s ability to reduce or eliminate work-related professionals from Brazilian manufacturing companies, a sector leading
injuries and illnesses (Tremblay and Badri, 2018; Jemai et al., 2021); in IoT implementation (Boyes et al., 2018). We used Partial Least
and measuring this performance is crucial for managing health and Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM) for data analysis.
safety (Jääskeläinen et al., 2022). Mousavi et al. (Mousavi et al., 2020) This article is structured as follows: The next section covers the
argue that analyzing OHS performance requires considering the work theoretical foundation, hypothesis formulation, and conceptual model.
environment and organizational factors as important elements. Section 3 details the research method used. Section 4 presents the
The work environment, or the physical location where employees analysis and results. Section 5 discusses the results. Finally, Section 6
perform their jobs (Lokman et al., 2019), is crucial to a worker’s quality offers the conclusions, practical implications, and limitations of the
of life (Naji et al., 2022). This environment includes several types of research.
risks, such as physical, chemical, biological, ergonomic, accident, and
psychosocial risks like stress (Reese, C.D. Occupational Safety and 2. Theoretical background and hypotheses formulation
Health: Fundamental Principles and Philosophies; CRC Press: Boca
Raton, 2017), which can affect workers’ health. Factors like ventilation, 2.1. Theoretical background
lighting, ergonomics, and noise levels influence the work environment
(Demet Leblebici Impact of Workplace Quality on Employee’s Produc- OHS involves protecting workers from accidents and illnesses related
tivity:Case Study of a Bank in Turkey. J. Bus. Econ. Financ., 2012). A to their jobs (Goetsch, 2015). Hughes and Ferret (Hughes and Ferrett,
safer work environment improves workers’ health, which is reflected in 2016) explain that “health” pertains to protecting both the body and
fewer occupational illnesses. In this context, Kadir, Broberg, and Con- mind at work, while “safety” focuses on protection against physical
ceição (Kadir et al., 2019) argue that I4.0 technologies will impact harm. Bavaresco et al. (Bavaresco et al., 2021) note that OHS addresses
workers, and the literature still lacks descriptive empirical research and the prevention, protection, and improvement of workers’ health in
tested hypotheses. Arana-Landín et al. (Arana-Landín et al., 2023) and relation to their work activities and environment. Thus, OHS aims to
Badri et al. (Badri et al., 2018) highlight the scarcity of studies promote physical and mental health as well as overall well-being. In this
comparing or quantitatively analyzing the impact of technologies on context, I4.0 technologies have the potential to affect work as well as the
OHS, emphasizing the need for more research in this area (Barata and da health, safety, and well-being of workers (Bavaresco et al., 2021).
Cunha, 2019). The term I4.0 marks the start of the fourth industrial revolution
Ahmetoglu et al. (Ahmetoglu et al., 2022) state that IoT is being Tortorella et al., 2018 and was introduced in Germany in 2011 at the
applied in various sectors, and that more research is needed to explore Hannover Fair Ghobakhloo, 2018; Adem et al., 2020; Leso et al., 2018. It
IoT and its benefits, particularly quantitative ones. Other researchers refers to a new concept based on extensive use of technologies (Roblek
also stress the need for additional studies. For example, Misra et al. et al., 2016; Stock et al., 2018); which enables data exchange between
(Misra et al., 2022) call for more research to analyze industries that have different components of the production process (Buhr, 2015). Some I4.0
implemented IoT solutions and their effects on OHS. Zhang et al. (Zhang technologies include IoT (Ojra, 2019; Polak-Sopinska et al, 2019);
et al., 2023) suggest that further studies should enhance the effective- Cyber-Physical Systems (CPS) Polak-Sopinska et al, 2019,61]; Robotics
ness of IoT technology in improving workplace safety. This is especially (RO) Jemai et al., 2021; Calzavara et al., 2020; Virtual Reality (VR)
relevant since several studies point to potential positive impacts of IoT in (Nicoletti and Padovano, 2019), Augmented Reality (AR) (Calzavara
reducing environmental risks (e.g, (Stefana et al., 2018; Bordel et al., et al., 2020), Artificial Intelligence (AI) Badri et al., 2018; Erol, 2019; Big
2019; Dogan, O.; Akcamete, A. Detecting Falls-from-Height with Data (BD) (Badri et al., 2018), Additive Manufacturing (AM) Erol, 2019;

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Siemieniuch et al., 2015; Franco et al., 2020; Cloud Computing (CC) 2.2. Hypotheses
Polak-Sopinska et al, 2019, Digital Twin (DT) Vasilieva et al., 2019;and
Simulation (SM) (Badri et al., 2018). 2.2.1. IoT and Working environment risks
For Kamble, Gunasekaran, and Gawankar (Kamble et al., 2018), this According to several authors Barata and da Cunha, 2019; Papetti
production model offers new perspectives by integrating new technol- et al., 2020; Bordel et al., 2019; Geczy et al., 2020; the IoT can positively
ogies into manufacturing to achieve maximum production with minimal impact the work environment. For example, it can reduce physical risks
resource use. I4.0 involves greater interconnectivity among people, by monitoring workplace temperature (Gisbert et al., 2014). Similarly,
objects, and systems through real-time data exchange (Adriaensen et al., Papetti et al. (Papetti et al., 2020) noted that IoT can monitor environ-
2019). It utilizes internet-based technologies, such as IoT, to improve mental factors such as temperature, noise, humidity, lighting, and
industrial, manufacturing, distribution, sales, and after-sales processes exposure to chemical and biological agents, providing more effective
(Pilloni, 2018). This digital integration of the entire chain enables sys- control of the work environment (Papetti et al., 2020; Adriaensen et al.,
tematic learning at all levels (Tortorella et al., 2018). 2019).
Implementing this new industrial model will bring significant IoT can bring substantial benefits to the work environment, e.g.,
changes to work and organization (Kadir et al., 2019), introducing new analyzing air quality to detect substances like carbon monoxide, helping
variables to OHS (Adem et al., 2020). These changes could affect assess exposure to chemical risks (Faramondi et al., 2019; Molka-
workers’ health and safety. One widely disseminated technology used in Danielsen et al., 2018). Data collection by sensors can also verify
various devices is the IoT (Khurshid et al., 2023; Zorzenon et al., 2022). compliance with regulatory parameters (such as toxic substances, tem-
When integrated into the manufacturing process, it allows digitalization, perature, and noise levels), enhancing safety concerning chemical and
optimization, and greater customization of production (Bavaresco et al., physical risks in industrial settings (Romero et al., 2018).
2021). Umair et al. (Umair et al., 2021) suggest using IoT devices in contexts
The term IoT was first introduced in 1999 in Kevin Ashton’s pre- with potential biological risks to monitor and predict high-risk situa-
sentation to Procter & Gamble (P&G) (Khurshid et al., 2023), referring tions, e.g., risk of COVID-19 contamination. They also highlight that
to the use of the internet in electrical and electronic equipment con- these devices can monitor individuals’ body temperatures, aiding in
nected to each other to enable information exchange. The term “things” COVID-19 screening and minimizing the potential risk of contagion in
refers to everything around us, from an atom to a ship (Suresh Priya, J.; these environments.
Vijay, D.; Parthasarathy, D. V.; Aswathy, R.. A State of the Art Review on Monitoring the work environment through sensors, as advocated by
the Internet of Things (IoT) History, Technology and Fields of Deploy- Greco et al. (Greco et al., 2020), can help improve the ergonomic con-
ment. Int. Conf. Sci. Eng. Manag. Res. (ICSEMR)2, 2014). According to ditions of workers. Khurshid et al. (Khurshid et al., 2023) also note that
Ojra (Ojra, 2019) and Polak-Sopinska et al, 2019, IoT is defined as a IoT, using accelerometers and gyroscopes, for example, can monitor
technology that connects smart physical objects to the internet for data workers’ posture, promoting ergonomics in the workplace (Khurshid
and information exchange. Samhale (Samhale, 2022) notes that IoT et al., 2023; Abubakar Muhammad et al., 2015; Ranavolo et al., 2020).
represents the connected whole, accessible by anyone, anywhere, and at Furthermore, IoT devices can be used for a more accurate ergonomic
any time. These definitions indicate that IoT encompasses anything assessment, reducing ergonomic risks (Papetti et al., 2020).
connected to the internet for data exchange, with a wide range of po- Geczy et al. (Geczy et al., 2020) and Di Rienzo et al. (Di Rienzo et al.,
tential applications (Zorzenon et al., 2022; Podgórski et al., 2017). 2020) suggest that IoT sensors can identify safety and danger limits,
Mattsson et al. (Mattsson and Partini, 2016) emphasize that IoT is an preventing accidents like contact with hot surfaces and reducing oxygen
important technology for monitoring a wide range of information (e.g., levels in confined spaces (Stefana et al., 2018). In environments such as
pulse rate, temperature) in the workplace to improve accident preven- coal mines, where space is limited, using various sensors can measure
tion. Ledda and Palomba (Ledda and Palomba, 2020) argue that IoT environmental parameters, helping to reduce or avoid fatal accidents
enables better worker protection, such as through personal protective (Palaka et al., 2020). Environments with heavy machinery often face
equipment with integrated technology. Fernández et al. (Fernández significant limitations in the field of view, and IoT sensors can play a
et al., 2024) highlight IoT’s potential to promote worker health by crucial role in identifying the distance between the worker and the
allowing effective control of suspended particles in the environment. machinery, thereby reducing the risk of accidents (Bordel et al., 2019).
IoT-adoption has expanded rapidly in workplaces, bringing with it Additionally, this technology has the potential to reduce fatal accidents
opportunities and challenges (Thibaud et al., 2018). Ahmetoglu et al. or accidents that result in worker disability by immediately alerting
(Ahmetoglu et al., 2022), in a recent systematic review, indicate that IoT medical services to provide assistance (Stefana et al., 2018; Dogan, O.;
is applicable in several sectors, such as health, agriculture, and trans- Akcamete, A. Detecting Falls-from-Height with Wearable Sensors and
port, facilitating the transition to smart environments. Thibaud et al. Reducing Consequences of Occupational Fall Accidents Leveraging IoT;
(Thibaud et al., 2018) note that IoT has great potential to contribute to Springer International Publishing, 2019).
high-risk industries where preserving human lives is paramount. Ac- IoT applications can prevent accidents, e.g., contact with hot sur-
cording to Bavaresco et al. (Bavaresco et al., 2021), IoT technology can faces, preventing possible burns, and also prevent injuries by analyzing
support OHS by providing information from various areas, helping repetitive movements to avoid carpal tunnel syndrome (Di Rienzo et al.,
reduce workplace injuries and accidents. 2020). IoT data collection can monitor variables related to workers’
The work environment and its inherent risks are important factors in well-being (Papetti et al., 2020), but it is important that solutions using
analyzing OHS (Mousavi et al., 2017). The work environment includes IoT sensors guarantee the privacy of workers’ data (Polak-Sopinska et al,
the physical space where work activities occur (Naji et al., 2022; 2019; Papetti et al., 2020; Faramondi et al., 2019; Mattsson and Partini,
Mousavi et al., 2017) and the surrounding conditions (Naji et al., 2022). 2016). If workers believe that these devices are being used to monitor
Workers face various risks that may harm their health and safety. Arana- their activities in the workplace, it could increase psychosocial risks,
Landín et al. (Arana-Landín et al., 2023) state that I4.0 technologies such as stress. Therefore, considering the various IoT applications and
influence the work environment, which encompasses different types of their impacts on work and accident risks, we propose the following
risks, such as physical, chemical, biological, ergonomic, accident, and hypothesis:
psychosocial risks.
Hypothesis 1(H1. ()) Adopting IoT technology has a positive effect on
workplace risks.

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2.2.2. Working environmental risks and OHS performance lost workdays (Ranavolo et al., 2020) and impacting OHS performance.
The work environment can be defined as the place where workers Tedeschi et al. (Tedeschi et al., 2017) and Liu et al. (Liu et al., 2019)
carry out their work-related activities. Geczy et al. (Geczy et al., 2020) note that the work environment can generate electromagnetic interfer-
mention that a safer and more comfortable work environment can pre- ence in IoT devices, compromising their proper functioning. Chang and
vent accidents, reduce injuries, and improve OHS performance. The Martin (Chang and Martin, 2021) also highlight that in sectors like
main workplace risks fall into six categories according to Zorzenon, metallurgy, where high temperatures are common, IoT devices must
Lizarelli and Braatz (Zorzenon et al., 2022): physical risk (noise, vibra- withstand these conditions to ensure process safety. Risks in the work
tions, abnormal pressures, extreme temperatures, radiation, etc.) environment can affect IoT devices’ functioning, depending on their
(Jahangiri et al., 2016); chemical risk (battery acids, solvents, dust, specifications. Therefore, workplace risks potentially mediate the rela-
gases or vapors, smoke, etc.) (Zorzenon et al., 2022; Reese, C.D. Occu- tionship between IoT and OHS performance.
pational Safety and Health: Fundamental Principles and Philosophies; For Stefana et al. (Stefana et al., 2018), IoT could improve the
CRC Press: Boca Raton, 2017); biological risk (viruses, bacteria, fungi, working environment in confined spaces by monitoring oxygen levels.
parasites, etc.) (Reese, C.D. Occupational Safety and Health: Funda- However, IoT sensors designed to monitor chemical hazards in the
mental Principles and Philosophies; CRC Press: Boca Raton, 2017); er- workplace, such as carbon monoxide concentration, may suffer from
gonomic risk (musculoskeletal disorders related to work) (Reese, C.D. interference caused by environmental factors like humidity and tem-
Occupational Safety and Health: Fundamental Principles and Philoso- perature. These interferences can lead to measurement inaccuracies,
phies; CRC Press: Boca Raton, 2017; Papetti et al., 2020); accident risk which vary according to each work environment’s specific re-
(workplace accidents); and psychosocial risk (e.g., stress) (Wischlitzki quirements. Thomas et al. (Thomas et al., 2018) proposed integrating
et al., 2020). Changes in this environment can influence OHS perfor- low-cost sensors into the work environment to monitor particulate
mance (Mousavi et al., 2017), therefore, reducing risks in the work matter and reduce chemical risks (particles penetrating the alveolar
environment can significantly impact OHS performance (Mousavi et al., regions of the lungs due to exposure to atmospheric pollutants), aiming
2020). to improve OHS performance. Therefore, the use of IoT might impact
Madhavi et al. (Madhavi et al., 2020), who analyzed the physical risk work environment risks and OHS performance. Hence, the following
of noise in the workplace, proposed a method for analyzing noise in hypothesis is proposed:
industrial environments. They warned that workplaces with high levels
Hypothesis 3. ((H3)) IoT impacts OHS performance when mediated by
of background noise, such as smart factories, could harm workers’
workplace risks.
health by increasing stress levels and compromising OHS performance.
Thomas et al. (Thomas et al., 2018) investigated exposure to chemical
2.2.4. Organizational factors as a moderator in the relationships between
risks and highlighted that exposure to atmospheric pollutants poses a
IoT, work environmental risks and OHS
risk to workers’ health due to particles penetrating the alveolar regions
Ahmetoglu et al. (Ahmetoglu et al., 2022) observed that several
of the lungs. The authors proposed integrating low-cost sensors in the
factors influence IoT adoption in the workplace, including organiza-
work environment to monitor particulate matter (carbon monoxide,
tional factors. These factors are crucial for both worker health
ozone, nitrogen dioxide, and other substances) to reduce chemical risks
(Niciejewska et al., 2021) and the work environment itself (Mousavi
and improve OHS performance.
et al., 2017). Organizational factors shape people’s behavior, affecting
In a study by Vulanović et al. (Vulanović et al., 2020), workplace
risks in the work environment. Properly managing these factors can
stress was quantitatively addressed as being a psychosocial risk. The
reduce the likelihood of human errors and work accidents, as they in-
researchers highlighted that occupational stress is a major cause of
fluence workers’ fatigue and concentration levels (Papetti et al., 2020);
increased accidents and has a significant impact on OHS performance.
impacting OHS performance. Organizational factors include autonomy
For example, Lu et al. (Lu et al., 2023) found that a work environment
Marcon et al., 2022; Mihail and Kloutsiniotis, 2016; training (Mihail and
with high biological risk can increase infectious diseases, which can be
Kloutsiniotis, 2016; Maalouf and Hoque, 2022; Geldart et al., 2010),
minimized by preventing and controlling biological risks. Based on these
communication (Mousavi et al., 2020), and recognition (Pirrolas and
analyses, we formulate the following hypothesis:
Correia, 2022).
Hypothesis 2 (H2). Reducing risks in the work environment has a positive Autonomy relates to an individual’s ability to control their behavior
effect on OHS performance. and make decisions independently (Samhale, 2022). Leso, Fontana, and
Lavicoli (Leso et al., 2018) argue that autonomy is a key characteristic of
2.2.3. IoT, working environmental risks and OHS performance I4.0, as increasing sensor integration in equipment allows for autono-
In the workplace, IoT aids in collecting environmental data, e.g., mous decision-making, reducing the need for direct worker interven-
extreme temperatures, helping to prevent occupational diseases (Papetti tion. However, Silva and Ramminger (SILVA, Claudia Osorio da;
et al., 2020) and issues related to poor posture at work (Greco et al., RAMMINGER, T. O Trabalho Como Operador de Saúde. Cien. Saude
2020) Papetti et al. (Papetti et al., 2020) argue that IoT devices can Colet., 2014) indicate that reducing worker autonomy can cause
improve the reduction of occupational illnesses through continuous suffering and exhaustion, emphasizing the importance of worker
monitoring of workers’ ergonomic data, such as posture, preventing participation in decision-making. Vecchio-Sadus and Griffiths (Vecchio-
fatigue and contributing to fewer accidents. In this context, Rajendran Sadus and Griffiths, 2004), as well as Cox and Griffiths (Cox and Grif-
et al. (Rajendran et al., 2020) mention that IoT technology in personal fiths, 2005), find that workers involved in decision-making are more
protective equipment, such as safety vests, can monitor and alert about committed to safety management, which benefits OHS.
risk situations, helping to reduce accidents and improve OHS Training is another essential aspect that can impact the relationships
performance. analyzed. Training raises awareness of hazards and potential risks (Hong
Some IoT devices can better control risk zones, contributing to higher et al., 2018), helping to improve workers’ behavioral skills, knowledge,
safety levels at sites and proactively protecting workers from accidents. and attitudes, and is crucial for OHS (Hong et al., 2018). Liu, Zhang, and
However, Barata and Da Cunha (Barata and da Cunha, 2019) point out Mao (Liu et al., 2020) note that adequate training, such as fire evacua-
that measurement errors (e.g., worker location) can compromise safety. tion drills, can reduce accident incidence, lower risks, and enhance OHS
When applied to wearable devices with wireless sensors (e.g., inertial performance. However, Lu et al. (Lu et al., 2020) conclude that training
measurement units, insoles to measure reaction forces), IoT enhances alone is insufficient to guarantee workplace safety after analyzing the
efficiency and safety in many manual activities. These new sensors can impact of management practices on safety performance in China.
monitor activities and assess biomechanical risks, reducing sick leave or Therefore, the authors recommend that organizations implement

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incentives to improve OHS. Hypothesis 4b.

Communication within an organization links to lower injury rates. (H4b): Organizational factors mediate the relationship between work-
Mousavi et al. (Mousavi et al., 2017) consider communication a critical place risks and OHS performance.
factor in the relationship between workplace risks and OHS perfor-
mance. When an organization prioritizes communication, workers 2.3. Control variables
become more involved in activities, providing feedback and reporting
possible work accidents or incidents (Lee et al., 2020). Communication The success of implementing I4.0 technologies varies with company
is seen as one of the most effective ways to integrate safety values into size, according to studies on this topic (Marcon et al., 2022). Literature
the organization (Hong et al., 2018), and team communication is one of highlights that I4.0 technology implementation impacts occupational
the organizational factors that can most positively impact OHS perfor- health and varies between large and small companies (Kadir and Bro-
mance (Mousavi et al., 2020). Naji et al. (Naji et al., 2022) note that berg, 2020; Papetti et al., 2020). Erdil (Erdil, 2022) finds that small
business communication affects the organization’s safety behavior and companies are generally more vulnerable to occupational threats than
results, with good communication helping to reduce psychosocial risk in large companies due to having fewer resources to manage risks. Simi-
the work environment. larly, Sørensen, Hasle, and Bach (Sørensen et al., 2007) note a correla-
Recognition plays a fundamental role in workplace well-being. Lack tion between company size and risk levels in the work environment,
of recognition from the organization negatively impacts employees’ where larger organizations often have more dangerous work environ-
well-being, increasing psychosocial risks in the work environment ments. Therefore, company size was studied as a control variable in this
(Pirrolas and Correia, 2022). Recognition at work has significant con- research. The proposed theoretical research model is presented (Fig. 1).
sequences for mental health. Silva and Ramminger (SILVA, Claudia
Osorio da; RAMMINGER, T. O Trabalho Como Operador de Saúde. Cien. 3. Research method
Saude Colet., 2014) point out that when a job well done is positively
evaluated and brings pride to the worker, this recognition can transform The hypotheses were tested using data collected from OHS experts
the experience of suffering at work, promoting OHS. who have experience with introducing IoT technology in industrial en-
Margueritti, Negrini, and Miglioretti (Margheritti et al., 2022) vironments. The data were examined using Partial Least Squares
mention that organizational factors influence workers. When workers Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM). This multivariate analytical
feel more confident and engaged, they also focus more on safety issues, method estimates complex models with many constructs, indicator
leading to improvements in both work environment risks and safety variables, and structural paths without imposing distributional as-
indicators. Thus, enhancing OHS performance relies on various orga- sumptions on the data, offering greater flexibility compared to similar
nizational factors and their complex interactions (Geldart et al., 2010). methods, such as CB-SEM (Hair et al., 2021; Hair et al., 2019). PLS-SEM
The relationship between IoT and workplace risk is significantly provides a higher level of confidence in investigations due to its statis-
influenced by organizational factors. For example, Badri et al. (Badri tical efficiency, which is enhanced by using specific software, such as
et al., 2018) argue that successful IoT adoption for occupational risk SmartPLS (Suárez-Albanchez et al., 2021), as used in this research
management depends on organizational factors. They emphasize that (Fig. 1).
factors such as training are essential for maximizing IoT’s benefits in 3.1 Research instrument and variables.
reducing risk. We also employed a cross-sectional mail survey of health and safety
Zara et al. (Zara et al., 2023) conducted a systematic review of high- professionals. To gather data, an online questionnaire captured the ex-
risk industries in workplaces. Their results show that organizational perts’ responses to the research variables. The survey was self-
factors significantly impact the relationship between these industries administered and comprised four sections. The first section included
and OHS performance, affecting accident and incident rates, for questions about personal characteristics (gender and age), the re-
example. Thus, organizational factors mediate this relationship. There- spondent’s experience, training, position, and sector. The second section
fore, our hypotheses are: addressed the use of IoT in the respondent’s company. The third section
Hypothesis 4a. ((H4a)) Organizational factors mediate the relationship covered questions on risk reduction and organizational factors. The final
between IoT and workplace risks. section included questions about Occupational Safety and Health
performance.

Fig. 1. The theoretical framework.

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R. ZORZENON et al. Safety Science 187 (2025) 106866

To analyze and evaluate the impact of the IoT on OHS performance, Table 1
we adapted the proposed indicators according to the measurement scale. Constructs, variables, and references.
The IoT construct was taken from Argyropoulou et al. (Argyropoulou Construct Code Item/statements Adapted from
et al., 2023) and AL-Khatib (Al-Khatib, 2023). The job risk construct was
Internet of Things IOT1 The company’s current Argyropoulou et al. (
based on Mousavi et al. (Mousavi et al., 2020) and Berhan (Berhan, (IoT) IoT infrastructure allows Argyropoulou et al.,
2020), while the performance construct adapted scales from Mousavi it to monitor and track 2023); AL-Khatib (Al-
et al. (Mousavi et al., 2020) and Hse (HSE, 2001). Table 1 presents the entities and people Khatib, 2023)
constructs and indicators used. A moderating construct of organizational through automatically
captured data (e.g.,
factors was also included. This construct covered issues such as auton- barcode tracking, RFID,
omy, training, communication, recognition, based on Giauque et al. GPS, etc.).
(Giauque et al., 2023), Mihail and Kloutsiniotis (Mihail and Kloutsi- IOT2 The company’s current
niotis, 2016), Abu dalal et al. (Abu Dalal et al., 2022), Maaluof and IoT infrastructure
measures processes and
Hoque (Maalouf and Hoque, 2022), Naji et al. (Naji et al., 2022) and
their environmental
Vinh, Hien and Hung Do (Vinh et al., 2022). The moderating construct conditions (e.g., ambient
aims to assess how these issues in the work environment can alter the temperature monitoring,
studied relationships. etc.).
Questions in the first section were answered as nominal qualitative IOT3 The company’s current
IoT infrastructure assists
variables, indicating position, education level, OHS training, sector, and in remotely controlling
tenure at the company. Construct items used a five-level Likert scale, processes (e.g.,
with responses ranging from 1 (“strongly disagree”) to 5 (“strongly monitoring process
agree”) (Hair et al., 2017). Given the research’s focus on a new topic, an status and performance,
allowing adjustments
option “I don’t know how to answer” was included and treated as a
without needing to be
missing value. Although the constructs were based on validated scales, on-site).
adaptations required ensuring the validity and reliability of the items for IOT4 The company’s current
the context. The questionnaire was pretested Hair et al., 2019; Forza, IoT infrastructure
2002; and all questions included an “I don’t know how to answer” op- provides real-time
information from
tion to accommodate professionals unfamiliar with the subject. The
operations (e.g., real-
questionnaire was validated by five experts: three from academia (with time process data).
experience in health and safety and I4.0 technologies) and two pro- IOT5 IoT in the company
fessionals with backgrounds in OHS practices. Consequently, the ques- monitors working
environment conditions
tionnaire was revised based on experts’ feedback, leading to
(e.g., temperature, noise,
improvements in wording and overall presentation to ensure the scales’ oxygen levels, gas leaks,
reliability and validity. etc.).
IOT6 IoT in the company
3.1. Sampling and data collection monitors issues related to
the manufacturing
process (e.g.,
Professionals with experience in OHS in manufacturing companies temperature, material
were selected and invited to participate in the sample. The respondents flow, production
include professionals who handle health and safety functions in the fluctuations, etc.).
Working RISK1 After introducing IoT, Mousavi et al. (Mousavi
workplace, such as occupational safety engineers, occupational nurses,
Environmental the organization et al., 2020), Berhan (
occupational physicians, occupational hygiene specialists, ergonomists, risks (RISK) experienced a reduction Berhan, 2020)
certified health auditors, OHS managers, and others with training and in physical risks (e.g.,
certifications in the OHS field, including nursing technicians, occupa- noise, extreme
tional safety technicians, researchers, managers, and factory floor temperatures) in the
work environment.
workers. RISK2 After introducing IoT,
The professionals were identified and selected via social media the organization
platforms with corporate information (LinkedIn), using keywords to find experienced a reduction
those with relevant expertise. Those explicitly indicating knowledge and in chemical risks (e.g.,
gases, vapors) in the
experience in health and safety at work were chosen. Social media has
workplace.
proven useful for identifying potential respondents for investigating RISK3 After introducing IoT,
organizational phenomena, as it provides accurate and easily accessible the organization
information about professional experience (Potter, 2022; Lizarelli et al., experienced a reduction
2023). in biological risks (e.g.,
viruses, bacteria) in the
An explanation of the study was sent to potential respondents, workplace.
including the research objectives and a link to the questionnaire. After RISK4 After introducing IoT,
contacting 550 potential respondents, the sample included 120 the organization
completed questionnaires. However, not all questionnaires were experienced a reduction
in ergonomic risks (e.g.,
considered valid for analysis. To ensure data quality (Hair et al., 2017),
inappropriate positions,
we removed questionnaires with more than 10 % missing data (“I don’t repetitive movements) in
know how to answer” option) and those with suspicious response pat- the work environment.
terns, such as straight-lining (same answer to all questions). This left 88 RISK5 After introducing IoT,
valid questionnaires. We replaced the remaining missing values with the the organization
experienced a reduction
mean, as suggested by Hair et al. (2017). in accident risks (e.g.,
Table 2 presents the main characteristics of the respondents, while
(continued on next page)
Table 3 shows information about the companies where the respondents
work. The sample is predominantly male (68 %). Most respondents are

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R. ZORZENON et al. Safety Science 187 (2025) 106866

Table 1 (continued ) Table 2

Construct Code Item/statements Adapted from
Respondents’ characteristics.
Characteristic Number Percentage
falls, injuries) in the
workplace. Gender ​ ​
RISK6 After introducing IoT, Male 68 77 %
the organization Female 20 23 %
experienced a reduction Age ​ ​
in psychosocial risks (e. Between 20–29 years 4 5%
g., stress, mental fatigue) Between 30–39 years 31 35 %
in the workplace. Between 40–49 years 37 42 %
OHS performance PE1 After implementing IoT, Mousavi et al. (Mousavi Between 50–59 years 11 13 %
your organization saw a et al., 2020), Hse (HSE, 60 years or more 5 6%
reduction in worker 2001) Experience in OHS ​ ​
injury records. Less than 1 year 1 1%
PE2 After implementing IoT, Between 1 and 2 years 4 5%
your organization saw a Between 3 and 5 years 10 11 %
reduction in worker Between 6 and 10 years 9 10 %
compensation costs (e.g., More than 10 years 34 39 %
medical assistance for I don’t want to answer 30 34 %
injuries and illnesses, Experience with IoT ​ ​
professional Less than 1 year 8 9%
rehabilitation, Between 1 and 2 years 16 18 %
temporary or permanent Between 3 and 5 years 17 19 %
disability, insurance, Between 6 and 10 years 17 19 %
etc.). More than 10 years 13 15 %
PE3 After implementing IoT, I don’t want to answer 17 19 %
your organization saw a Position ​ ​
reduction in the number Manager 24 27 %
of recorded workplace Occupational Health and Safety (OHS) Engineer 20 23 %
accidents. OHS Technician 15 17 %
PE4 After implementing IoT, OHS Nurse 9 10 %
your organization saw a Engineer 4 5%
reduction in lost Ergonomist 3 3%
workdays (absences). Analyst (PCP / Quality) 2 2%
PE5 After implementing IoT, Researcher 2 2%
your organization saw a Other 9 10 %
reduction in the number
of work incidents.
Organizational OF1 In my organization, I Giauque et al. (Giauque
Factors participate in decisions et al., 2023); Mihail and Table 3
that affect my work. Kloutsiniotis (Mihail Company characteristics.
OF2 In my organization, I am and Kloutsiniotis,
involved in decisions 2016); Abu dalal et al. ( Characteristics Number Percentage
about the nature of my Abu Dalal et al., 2022); Sector ​ ​
work. Maaluof and Hoque ( Agribusiness 15 17 %
OF3 The organization is Maalouf and Hoque, Automotive 15 17 %
committed to training its 2022); Naji et al. (Naji Mechanical metal 8 9%
employees, encouraging et al., 2022); Vinh, Hien Chemistry/Pharmaceutics 8 9%
them to expand their and Hung Do (Vinh Aerospace 5 6%
skills and abilities. et al., 2022) Food 5 6%
OF4 The organization Household Appliance 4 5%
subsidizes, assists with, Mining 4 5%
or reimburses employees Construction 3 3%
for training or courses Textile 3 3%
taken outside the Other 18 20 %
workplace. Size ​ ​
OF5 In my organization, there Less than 50 employees 5 6%
is good communication Between 50 and 100 employees 3 3%
about issues that may Between 101 and 250 employees 9 10 %
affect me (e.g., health Between 251 and 500 employees 9 10 %
and safety information, Between 501 and 1000; employees 13 15 %
job requirements, etc.). Between 1001 and 2000 employees 17 19 %
OF6 In my organization, I Between 2001 and 3500 employees 10 11 %
exchange information Between 3501 and 5000 employees 5 6%
with my co-workers (e. Over 5000 employees 16 18 %
g., health and safety
information).
OF7 In my organization,
over 40 years old (60 %). A significant portion of the sample (39 %) has
workers are generally
praised when they
more than 10 years of experience in the OHS field, and 60 % have more
perform better than than 3 years of experience in this area. The sample also includes re-
average. spondents with experience in IoT technology, with 53 % having over
OF8 In my organization, three years of experience. This indicates that respondents were able to
workers are recognized
understand and answer questions related to both OHS and IoT. A large
when they improve the
quality of their work. proportion of the sample are managers (27 %), with 53 % directly
involved in OHS activities (e.g., OHS engineers, OHS technicians, OHS
nurses, and ergonomists).

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R. ZORZENON et al. Safety Science 187 (2025) 106866

Table 3 gives the key characteristics of the companies where the models with many constructs, and when dealing with distribution issues
respondents are employed, which form the basis for their survey re- like lack of normality. It is also effective when research involves multi-
sponses. These companies come from various sectors, including the item latent variables (Hair et al., 2017; Manley et al., 2021). Despite its
agribusiness (17 %), automotive (17 %), metal mechanics (9 %), and acceptance of small sample sizes, methods must indicate the required
chemistry/pharmaceuticals (9 %) sectors. Most (69 %) are large com- sample sizes considering PLS-SEM’s measurement and structural model
panies by Brazilian standards, with more than 500 employees (Brasil. characteristics (Hair et al., 2017; Kock and Hadaya, 2018).
Ministério Do Trabalho e Emprego. NR4 - Serviços Especializados Em To verify the adequacy of the sample size, two methods were applied.
Engenharia de Segurança e Em Medicina Do Trabalho Available online: The first, the minimum R-squared method (for a model with only one
[Link] predictor and a power of 0.90), showed that a sample of 73 respondents
participacao-social/conselhos-e-orgaos-colegiados/comissao-tripartite- is sufficient (Hair et al., 2017). The second, the inverse square root
partitaria-permanente/arquivos/normas-regulamentadoras/nr-04- method for minimum sample size estimation, used a retrospective
atualizada-, 2021). calculation based on the path coefficient with the minimum magnitude
in the model and statistically significant (p-value < 0.05) (Kock and
3.2. Common method bias Hadaya, 2018), indicating that a sample of 22 respondents would be
adequate. Since the analyzed sample consisted of 88 individuals, it is
Common method bias (CMB) can affect research findings (Podsakoff sufficient for the model and the analyses performed. The research model
et al., 2003). CMB arises from issues related to the measurement method is presented in Fig. 2.
used in research applying SEM (Podsakoff et al., 2003; Kock, 2015).
CMB sources include obtaining predictive and outcome variables from 4. Analysis and results
the same source, issues with the measurement items, and the context of
items within the measurement instrument or their source (Podsakoff 4.1. Validating the measurement model and the hypotheses
et al., 2003; Kock, 2015). To assess whether CMB impacts the model and
analyzed data, two approaches were used. The first was Harman’s single The research model consists of reflective constructs (IoT, Risk, and
factor test for all items, where the variance of a single factor must be less OHS Performance) and proposes that Organizational Factors moderate
than 50 % to show no substantial common method variance (Podsakoff the relationships between IoT and Risk, and Risk and OHS Performance.
et al., 2003; Podsakoff et al., 2012). The second was the full collinearity The measurement model is reflective and requires specific evaluation
test using the variance inflation factor (VIF) (Kock, 2015). VIF values criteria (Hair et al., 2017; Hair et al., 2018). To analyze the measure-
were below the threshold value of 3.3 (equal to 1.0), indicating no ment model, we used Confirmatory Composite Analysis (CCA), a recent
collinearity problems (Kock, 2015). Additionally, Levene’s test and a t- approach for confirming both reflective and formative measurement
test assessed non-response bias by evaluating differences in variance and models when using PLS-SEM for established measures updated or
means between early and late respondents (sample divided into 50 %). adapted to a different context (Manley et al., 2021; Hair et al., 2020).
No significant differences were found (p-value < 0.05), supporting that The steps to validate the reflective measurement model include
non-response bias is not an issue. (Manley et al., 2021; Hair et al., 2020):

1. estimating item outer loadings, reliability, and their significance

3.3. Data analysis (Outer Loadings > 0.708, p-value < 0.05);
2. assessing composite reliability of the constructs (Cronbach’s alpha −
PLS-SEM has found considerable applications in various disciplines, CA and composite reliability − CR > 0.70);
including marketing, strategic management, management information 3. examining average variance extracted (AVE ≥ 0.50);
systems, operations management, and human resource management 4. confirming discriminant validity (HTMT confidence intervals < 0.85
(Hair et al., 2019; Hair et al., 2014; Huit et al., 2018). This popularity or 0.90);
arises because PLS-SEM suits a range of circumstances and offers ad- 5. assessing nomological validity; and
vantages over similar methods (Hair et al., 2017; Manley et al., 2021). 6. evaluating predictive validity (R2, f2, Q2).
PLS-SEM works well with small sample sizes, non-parametric scaling
methods such as ordinal or nominal measurements, complex structural

Fig. 2. Hypothesized model.

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R. ZORZENON et al. Safety Science 187 (2025) 106866

Since the reflective measurement model includes a moderator vari- Table 5

able (Organizational Factors), it must meet all relevant criteria for in- HTMT results.
ternal consistency reliability, convergent validity, and discriminant Constructs IoT OF PE RISK
validity (Hair et al., 2017). The outer loadings are the estimated re-
IoT
lationships in reflective measurement models, stem from regressions of
each indicator on its corresponding construct (which in PLS-SEM is Organizational Factors (OF) 0.469 ​ ​ ​ ​
OHS Performance (PE) 0.233 0.394
equivalent to the bivariate correlation between each indicator and the
​ ​ ​
Working Risks (RISK) 0.551 0.403 0.569 ​ ​
construct) and determine an indicator’s absolute contribution to its
assigned construct (Hair et al., 2017; Manley et al., 2021). The size of the
outer loading is also commonly called indicator reliability (Hair et al., significance of path coefficients through a Bootstrapping procedure,
2017). The outer loadings of all indicators should be statistically sig- which verifies whether the proposed hypotheses are supported by
nificant (p-value < 0.05), and a common rule of thumb is that the empirical data (significance − p-value < 0.05 and relevance/size of path
standardized outer loadings should be 0.708 or higher (Hair et al., 2017; coefficients); assessing in-sample prediction of dependent constructs
Hair et al., 2020). The square of a standardized indicator’s outer loading based on R2, effect size (f2), and predictive relevance (Q2); and evalu-
represents how much of the variation in an indicator is explained by the ating out-of-sample predictive validity using PLSpredict. Table 6 shows
construct and is described as the variance extracted from the item. An the inner VIF values, effect size (f2), path coefficients obtained through
established rule of thumb is that a latent variable should explain a the Bootstrapping procedure, and their significance.
substantial part of each indicator’s variance, usually at least 50 % (Hair The two hypotheses proposed in the research model (H1, H2) are
et al., 2017; Manley et al., 2021). Once all CCA rules of thumb are met or statistically supported (Table 6). IoT has a positive and statistically
exceeded, the researcher proceeds to the structural model assessment significant impact on Working Risks (β = 0.516; p-value < 0.001), and
(Manley et al., 2021). Table 4 shows that all constructs and items meet Working Risks has a positive and statistically significant impact on OHS
the criteria for item loadings, composite reliability, internal consistency, Performance (β = 0.550; p-value < 0.001). The size of the path co-
and convergent validity. efficients allows comparison of the intensity of these relationships (Hair
Table 5 shows that the constructs also meet the discriminant validity et al., 2017; Hair et al., 2018); and the values in Table 6 indicate that the
criteria (HTMT < 0.85). Nomological validity is another method for two relationships have similar effects. The effect size f2 allows com-
assessing construct validity (Hair et al., 2020). To evaluate nomological parison of the importance of a construct in explaining a given endoge-
validity, we correlated the score of each construct with one or more nous latent variable (Hair et al., 2017; Hair et al., 2018). The f2 values
other constructs (concepts) in the nomological network (Hair et al., indicate that both IoT and Working Risks have a large effect on their
2020). We correlated the IoT construct with the use of I4.0 technologies,
OHS Performance with the number of employees, and Risk with
employee development for OHS. These relationships were consistent Table 6
with both the theoretical direction and the size and significance of the Hypothesis testing (bootstrapping method − 5000 sub-samples).
correlations (Hair et al., 2020). We will evaluate predictive validity Hypothesis VIF f2 Path Stdev p- Result
along with the measurement model. (β) value
A systematic process evaluates a structural model in PLS-SEM H1: IoT − > 1.00 0.363 0.516 0.086 <0.001 Supported
(Manley et al., 2021). Evaluating the structural model involves (based Working Risks
on Hair et al. (Hair et al., 2017; Hair et al., 2020; Hair et al., 2018); H2: Working Risks 1.00 0.434 0.550 0.082 <0.001 Supported
Shmueli et al. (Shmueli et al., 2019); Manley et al. (Manley et al., 2021): − > Performance
ƒ2 values of 0.02, 0.15, and 0.35, represent respectively small, medium, and large
assessing multicollinearity between the independent variable constructs effects (Cohen 1988)
via inner VIF values (VIF < 5.0); examining the size and statistical

Table 4
Internal consistency, item loadings, reliability and AVE.
Constructs Code Outer Loading p-value CA CR AVE R2

Internet of Things (IOT) IOT1 0.797 <0.001 0.899 0.923 0.667 ​

IOT2 0.828 <0.001
IOT3 0.887 <0.001
IOT4 0.845 <0.001
IOT5 0.811 <0.001
IOT6 0.723 <0.001
Working Risks (RISK) RISK1 0.919 <0.001 0.951 0.961 0.804 0.266
RISK2 0.878 <0.001
RISK3 0.837 <0.001
RISK4 0.901 <0.001
RISK5 0.916 <0.001
RISK6 0.927 <0.001
OHS Performance (PE) PE1 0.961 <0.001 0.965 0.973 0.878 0.303
PE2 0.975 <0.001
PE3 0.932 <0.001
PE4 0.969 <0.001
PE5 0.843 <0.001
Organizational Factors (OF) OF1 0.746 <0.001 0.936 0.947 0.693 ​
OF2 0.761 <0.001
OF3 0.843 <0.001
OF4 0.835 <0.001
OF5 0.893 <0.001
OF6 0.909 <0.001
OF7 0.878 <0.001
OF8 0.781 <0.001

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R. ZORZENON et al. Safety Science 187 (2025) 106866

respective endogenous constructs. The coefficient of determination (R2) Table 8

measures the in-sample predictive power (Table 4). While disciplines Indirect and direct effects (bootstrapping method − 5000 sub-samples).
use various thresholds for R2, a general guideline is that 0.75, 0.50, and Indirect Effect Path Stdev p- Result
0.25 represent substantial, moderate, or weak levels of predictive ac- (β) value
curacy, respectively (Hair et al., 2014). Thus, the model shows a mod- IoT − > Working Risks − > OHS 0.304 0.090 0.001 Supported
erate predictive level in-sample. Performance
To analyze the model’s predictive power and generalizability i.e., its Direct Effect Path Stdev p- Result
ability to predict values for new cases not included in the estimation (β) value
IoT − > OHS Performance − 0.077 0.117 0.510 Not
process (out-of-sample) one must assess the model’s out-of-sample Supported
predictive power using the PLS prediction procedure (Hair et al.,
2020; Shmueli et al., 2019). This procedure evaluates if Q2 > 0 for all
items in the constraints, and the mean absolute error (MAE) values from moderation analysis results is the significance of the interaction term
the PLS-SEM analysis were smaller than the MAE from the linear (Table 9) (Hair et al., 2017). The moderation of Organizational Factors
regression model (LM) results (Hair et al., 2020; Shmueli et al., 2019). in the relationship between IoT and Working Risks was not statistically
The results (Table 7) showed that Q2 values were greater than 0 and PLS- validated (Table 9). However, since the interaction term’s effect is sig-
SEM MAE values were smaller than LM MAE values for all items, indi- nificant (Table 9), we conclude that Organizational Factors significantly
cating a high out-of-sample predictive power for the model (Shmueli moderates the relationship between Working Risks and OHS Perfor-
et al., 2019). This high predictive power suggests that the model has mance. The f2 values indicate that the effect of moderation is large
strong explanatory and generalization capability for other samples. (0.005, 0.01, and 0.025). Fig. 3 shows that when Organizational Factors
are present at a high intensity, the relationship between reduced
Working Risks due to IoT implementation and OHS Performance
4.2. Mediation effect
strengthens. Conversely, when Organizational Factors are weak, the
relationship weakens.
The model aimed to investigate the mediating role of workplace risks
in the relationship between IoT use and OHS performance. Mediation in
PLS-SEM involves a third variable, known as a mediator, intervening 4.4. Control variables
between two related constructs (Hair et al., 2020). To analyze the effect
and type of mediation, the first step is to determine the significance of The control variable was taken as being organization size, measured
the indirect effect (Hair et al., 2017; Hair et al., 2020). If this effect is not by the number of employees. To evaluate its effect, a single-item
significant, the construct will not have a mediating role in the tested construct was linked to the two dependent latent variables. However,
relationship. If an indirect effect exists, the next step is to verify the the path coefficients and effect sizes were not significant (Huit et al.,
direct effect between the constructs to classify the type of mediation 2018; Manley et al., 2021). Therefore, company size does not affect the
(Hair et al., 2017; Hair et al., 2020). If the direct effect is not significant, research model.
only the indirect effect caused by the mediating variable is present,
indicating full mediation (Hair et al., 2017; Hair et al., 2020). Table 8
5. Discussion
shows the specific indirect effects considering mediation and direct
effects.
The analysis showed that IoT infrastructure within companies
Only the relationship between IoT and OHS performance, mediated
significantly reduces work risks. This relationship was supported
by workplace risks, showed statistical significance (H3). Since the direct
(Table 6) by data indicating a positive path coefficient (β = 0.516; p <
relationship between IoT and OHS performance was not statistically
0.001), meaning that greater use of IoT leads to a reduction in physical,
significant (Table 8), it is possible to state that this case represents full
chemical, biological, ergonomic, accident, and psychosocial risks. These
mediation. IoT affects OHS performance only indirectly, by reducing
findings align with existing literature, as Argyropoulou et al.
workplace risks.
(Argyropoulou et al., 2023) and AL-Khatib (Al-Khatib, 2023) state that
IoT technologies enable more accurate and real-time monitoring of
4.3. Moderation effect environmental conditions and work processes, promoting quicker and
more effective interventions to mitigate risks. For example, Ledda and
A moderation analysis assesses whether a moderator variable (or Palomba (Ledda and Palomba, 2020) highlight that IoT sensors in
construct) changes the strength or direction of a relationship between clothing and personal protective equipment offer numerous possibilities
two constructs in the model (Hair et al., 2017). This study investigates for protecting workers, such as body monitoring, risk area surveillance,
the moderating role of the Organizational Factors construct in the re- and environmental condition monitoring.
lationships between IoT and Working Risks, and between Working Risks Furthermore, reducing work risks positively and significantly im-
and OHS Performance. The primary interest when interpreting pacts OHS performance (β = 0.550; p < 0.001). This impact is evident in
reduced injuries, compensation costs, accident numbers, lost workdays,
Table 7 and workplace incidents. By mitigating risks, companies protect their
PLS Predict Analysis. employees and lower costs related to occupational accidents and
Item Q2predict PLS-SEM_MAE LM_MAE

PE1 0.041 1.187 1.212

Table 9
PE2 0.056 1.192 1.216 Significance of the interaction term (bootstrapping − 5000 sub-samples).
PE3 0.015 1.236 1.262 Interaction term f2 Path Stdev p- Result
PE4 0.059 1.147 1.199 (β) value
PE5 0.007 1.170 1.189
RISK1 0.199 1.076 1.138 OF x IoT − > Working 0.036 − 0.147 0.084 0.080 Not
RISK2 0.257 0.931 0.936 Risks Supported
RISK3 0.216 1.030 1.066 OF x Working Risks − > 0.068 0.185 0.093 0.047 Supported
RISK4 0.153 1.149 1.224 OHS Performance
RISK5 0.203 1.105 1.032
f2 values of 0.005, 0.01, and 0.025 represent, respectively, small, medium, and
RISK6 0.156 1.096 1.110
large effect sizes in moderation (Hair et al., 2017).

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R. ZORZENON et al. Safety Science 187 (2025) 106866

Fig. 3. Slope analysis Organizational Factors vs. Working Risks.

illnesses (Madhavi et al., 2020). Therefore, hypothesis H2 was also Trabalho Como Operador de Saúde. Cien. Saude Colet., 2014), Liu,
supported. Zhang and Mao (Liu et al., 2020), Hong, Ramayah and Subramaniam
An important finding was that IoT does not directly affect OHS (Hong et al., 2018) and Lu et al. (Lu et al., 2020); who state that orga-
performance (identified in the analysis of hypothesis H3). However, it nizational factors are crucial for enhancing worker health and safety
positively and significantly influences OHS outcomes by reducing risks performance.
in the work environment. This aligns with other studies, such as those by
Papetti et al. (Papetti et al., 2020) and Rajendran et al. (Rajendran et al., 6. Conclusions
2020), which highlight that IoT, by collecting environmental data, can
monitor and alert about risk situations, helping to reduce accidents and The main objective of this article was to analyze and evaluate the
improve OHS performance. Stefana et al. (Stefana et al., 2018) and impact of the IoT on OHS performance. Through Partial Least Squares
Thomas et al. (Thomas et al., 2018) also indicate that monitoring Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM), the research hypotheses were
workplace risks reduces risks and enhances OHS performance. tested, contributing significantly to the existing literature on the topic.
Our results also revealed that the moderation of organizational fac- IoT is a key I4.0 technology (Buer et al., 2018) with a wide range of
tors in the relationship between IoT and workplace risks was not vali- applications (Khurshid et al., 2023).
dated (Table 9). This suggests that, although organizational factors are
recognized as important influencers in the adoption of IoT technology
6.1. Managerial implications
(Ahmetoglu et al., 2022), they do not significantly impact the relation-
ship between IoT and workplace risks. This result may be influenced by
Our findings have important implications for managers who need to
the technology’s novelty for companies, which may hinder its full
be actively aware of OHS performance. The results show that IoT tech-
integration into work routines and reduce the impact of organizational
nology significantly reduces risks in the workplace, which in turn re-
factors. On the other hand, our findings indicated that organizational
duces injuries and accidents. The impact of occupational risks on OHS
factors significantly affect the relationship between occupational risks
performance was also analyzed, finding that these risks significantly
and OHS performance (Table 9), acting as an important moderator.
influence OHS performance.
Organizational factors such as autonomy, training, communication, and
The influence of organizational factors, such as training, communi-
recognition positively impact the relationship between workplace risks
cation, autonomy and recognition, as mediators was tested. The results
and OHS performance, contributing to fewer injuries, reduced absences
indicate that these factors do not mediate the relationship between IoT
due to work incapacity, fewer accidents, and a decrease in incidents.
and workplace risks, but they have a significant mediating effect on the
Taken together, organizational factors play a fundamental role in
relationship between workplace risks and OHS performance.
improving OHS performance. These results align with Papetti et al.
Additionally, it is essential that managers understand that IoT can
(Papetti et al., 2020); who argue that organizational factors influence
contribute to reducing risks in the workplace and, consequently,
OHS performance. This means that industrial companies should not only
improving OHS. To achieve even better performance, managers should
focus on complying with standards and regulations for good OHS per-
consider organizational factors.
formance but also direct efforts toward organizational factors, which
significantly impact OHS performance improvement. This finding agrees
with several authors, such as 6.2. Study limitations and future research
Vecchio-Sadus and Griffiths (Vecchio-Sadus and Griffiths, 2004),
Cox and Griffiths (Cox and Griffiths, 2005), Samhale (Samhale, 2022), Despite the promising results, this study was not without certain
Silva and Ramminger (SILVA, Claudia Osorio da; RAMMINGER, T. O limitations, e.g., using a specific sample of OHS professionals exclusively
from Brazilian companies. Therefore, the results should be interpreted

11
R. ZORZENON et al. Safety Science 187 (2025) 106866

with caution, considering the particularities of each context. Future this aspect is crucial, as it serves as a facilitator for IoT implementation
research could expand the sample to include a larger number of re- and its effects on Occupational Health and Safety (OHS).
spondents and use longitudinal methods to observe the long-term effects Furthermore, the complexity of IoT adoption can pose a barrier, as
of IoT on OHS, as occupational illnesses often take years to manifest. the technology often requires integrated systems capable of handling
As a limitation of this study and a suggestion for future research, it is large volumes of data, necessitating complementary technologies (Dave
important to consider factors that may influence the results obtained. et al., 2025; Rajabzadeh and Fatorachian, 2023). The level of technology
Due to its exploratory nature, this research examined the proposed already embedded in existing processes can facilitate IoT adoption,
model without focusing on a specific production sector. Most studies on though even integration with pre-existing technologies may present
IoT and OHS do not emphasize a single industrial sector, however the challenges (Dave et al., 2025; Rajabzadeh and Fatorachian, 2023). These
relationship and impact may vary across different sectors (Bavaresco considerations highlight the importance of strategic technological
et al., 2021). modernization and the need to assess how existing technological infra-
For instance, in the automotive sector, IoT applications have pri- structure impacts implementation, outcomes, and OHS.
marily focused on ergonomic improvements through the use of wearable Declaration of Generative AI and AI-assisted technologies in the
devices (e.g., exoskeletons) and sensors (Pinho, J.P.; Taira, C.; Parik- writing process.
Americano, P.; Suplino, L.O.; Bartholomeu, V.P.; Hartmann, V.N.; During the preparation of this work, the authors used ChatGPT 3.5
Umemura, G.S.; Forner-Cordero, A. A Comparison between Three for assistance in phrasing and writing, and not as a source of knowledge
Commercially Available Exoskeletons in the Automotive Industry: An generation. After using this tool, the authors reviewed the suggestions,
Electromyographic Pilot Study. Proc. IEEE RAS EMBS Int. Conf. Biomed. edited the content as necessary, and take full responsibility for the
Robot. Biomechatronics, 2020). In the construction sector, the emphasis published article’s content.
is on continuous monitoring in OHS (Barata and da Cunha, 2019)
whereas in the footwear sector, IoT is used to enhance both ergonomic CRediT authorship contribution statement
conditions and continuous monitoring of the work environment (e.g.,
temperature, humidity, and air quality) (Papetti et al., 2020; Papetti Rafael ZORZENON: Writing – original draft, Resources, Methodol-
et al., 2020). Given the different applications of IoT across sectors and ogy, Investigation, Formal analysis, Data curation, Conceptualization.
the potential for varying perceptions of the relationship between IoT and Fabiane L. LIZARELLI: Writing – original draft, Validation, Supervi-
OHS (Bavaresco et al., 2021), a promising avenue for future research is sion, Methodology, Investigation, Formal analysis, Conceptualization.
to assess whether significant differences exist in the impact of IoT on Daniel BRAATZ: Writing – review & editing, Validation, Formal
OHS depending on the production sector. Additionally, investigating analysis.
sector-specific variations in both the proposed model and other empir-
ical studies could provide valuable insights.
Declaration of competing interest
Another factor that should be investigated in the proposed model and
in other empirical research is company size. Large companies are known
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
to have the necessary resources to adopt new technological trends in
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
their processes (González-Cañizalez et al., 2024). Empirical research
the work reported in this paper.
indicates that firm size significantly influences IoT adoption
(Kitcharoen, 2024), and the context of large companies differs from that
Acknowledgements
of small and medium-sized enterprises (Samaranayake et al., 2023).
Company size can impact the availability of resources, workforce
The authors would like to thank the financial support provided by
development, and other factors that affect the outcomes of new tech-
the Coordination for the Improvement of Higher Education Personnel
nology adoption in OHS (González-Cañizalez et al., 2024).
(CAPES) in Brazil, and the Federal University of São Carlos (UFSCar) in
Management support, which involves the endorsement and active
Brazil.
involvement of top management, is closely linked to the articulation of a
Funding.
strategic vision for IoT adoption (Kitcharoen, 2024). To provide this
This study was supported by the Coordination for the Improvement
support, management must foster an innovation-friendly environment
of Higher Education Personnel (CAPES) in Brazil (Financing Code 001)
and promote the adoption of new technologies. Additionally, prior
and by the Federal University of São Carlos (UFSCar) in Brazil.
knowledge of IoT and its significance is a key factor influencing its
adoption (Dave et al., 2025). Achieving successful IoT implementation
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