chapter NINE

Collaborative Learning:
Working in Groups

A significant part of your learning at university involves collaboration with other

students. This chapter focuses on the kinds of collaboration that you are required
to participate in as part of your formal, or prescribed, learning experience. In
most cases this kind of collaboration is called assessable group work.
Educational benefits of students working collaboratively are well recognised.
Researchers have found that the most effective learning happens when students
learn together; that is, when they help each other to learn. By working in a
collaborative way students not only improve their understanding of the material
they are studying, they also develop skills in working in teams or groups.
However, undertaking group work for assessment can be very challenging.
By reading this chapter and putting into practice some of the suggested
strategies you should be able to avoid some of the pitfalls of group work, and in
the process reap the many potential benefits.
In this chapter you will find some basic information about group work to
assist you to work effectively as a group member, and to help your group work
towards achieving its goals. The chapter includes:

•• a definition of group work, and a description of collaboration and cooperation

•• an outline of the importance and benefits of studying and working in groups
•• a description of the important roles that members implicitly and explicitly
play when working in groups
•• a description of how groups develop
•• a description of some of the challenges of group work, and ways to overcome
those challenges (includes conflict, social loafing and leadership)
•• an overview of some of the micro processes of group work, including some
tips for making the processes work.

193
 194 essential academic skills

Collaborative group work

Group work is generally defined as work (for example, activities, exercises,
tasks, discussions, problem solving, presentations and projects) undertaken by a
number of people all striving towards one primary goal or purpose. Group work
is commonly used in courses that require judgment; for example, where there
is a requirement to apply theory to real-world problems, make decisions and
problem-solve. The reason group work is used in these types of tasks is because
superior decisions generally result from collaborative decision-making.
Group members In the majority of cases, when you undertake group work you are jointly
collaborate to help each
rewarded for the work completed by your group; that is, each person in the
other to learn and to
succeed. group is awarded the same mark for the one piece of work submitted. With
this approach to group work, the expectation is that all group members will
be dependent on one another and collaborate fully in the completion of the
assessment task. Johnson, Johnson and Holubec (1998) call this ‘positive
interdependence’. In a relationship that is positively interdependent, you are
linked to others in a group in such a way that for one person to succeed, the
whole group has to succeed.
Collaboration used this way, early in your study career, can be quite
challenging. In spite of this, the benefits of collaboration are expected to
outweigh the difficulties, as all group members are assumed to gain from the
broader learning experience.

Cooperative group work

In some cases, a group assignment may be able to be broken into distinguishable
parts that can then be divided among the group members. Each member has
a specific part to complete; for example, different subtopics of a research
project. The final product might then be a combination of what each member
has produced. In this case, one group member is usually given the responsibility
of pulling the parts together into, for example, a final report. With this kind of
group work all members are still generally awarded the same mark. However,
their activities are more akin to cooperation rather than collaboration, and as
such each student may or may not experience as broad a learning experience as
if each had collaborated across the entire assignment.
In other situations, individual marks can be awarded to assessment that in
the beginning starts out as group work but culminates in the submission of
individual pieces of work. This can be the case, for example, with written
assessment or presentations. You might be required to work with others on
the research, analysis, decision-making and/or problem-solving stages of an
assignment, then go your separate ways to write your individual response
 C h a p t e r 9 : C o l l a b o r a t i v e L e a r n i n g 195

to the assignment. You can also each play individual parts in a presentation
that has been collaboratively or cooperatively developed. In these cases you
may be assigned an individual mark for your work. These latter uses of group
work can reduce some of the challenges that group work poses, but can also
increase the likelihood of other problems arising. Some of the challenges or
problems students face when doing group work are discussed later in the
chapter.

Formal and informal group work

Whether it is collaborative or cooperative group work, if it has been prescribed
by your lecturer and it attracts a mark, it is considered to be formal group work.
Group work can also be informal. As an individual you may engage in
collaboration or cooperation with class members or with friends outside of
class. Groups working together this way are usually referred to as informal
study groups. Students usually develop study groups so they can:

•• pool resources needed for an assessment item

•• clarify and discuss ideas
•• share the task of collecting and recording lecture notes
•• share in the development of revision material for exam preparation.
Informal group work can also be initiated by your lecturers. For example,
while you are in class, your lecturer may ask you to work in a group to complete
short activities, solve problems or engage in discussions. These activities may
be assessed; however, in most cases they are not. In-class group activities are
usually used by your lecturers to enhance the classroom learning experience for
all involved. They are generally used to increase interest and creativity, and also
to improve the generation of more effective ideas, information and solutions.

Benefits of group work

Group work at university is undertaken to satisfy many different teaching and
learning goals. It is used to help you learn, understand and retain as much as
possible of what you are taught, and to help make your learning an enjoyable and
fulfilling activity.
The development of effective group work skills not only ensures greater Developing group
work skills can help
success and satisfaction in your university study, but it also ensures greater
you educationally and
success in obtaining and retaining satisfactory employment when you graduate. professionally.
Among the many generic skills that graduates are expected to have on entering
the workforce are good teamwork skills. In industry, teamwork skills are
 196 essential academic skills

increasingly being seen as the answer to many challenges that face organisations,
especially where managers are looking for maximisation of output, creativity,
accuracy, efficiency, productivity and profits.
Advantages of group work:

•• feelings of connectedness, engagement and inclusiveness or shared

purpose, leading to higher levels of satisfaction (Davis, 1993)
•• performance at higher intellectual levels (Vygotsky, 1978)
•• development of effective functioning as a member of a group; that is, of
good teamwork skills
•• deeper and more sustained learning and understanding
•• increased creativity
•• access to greater amounts of information
•• greater confidence in involvement and participation
•• accomplishment of more (quantitatively and qualitatively) as a result of
synergy
•• exposure to new and different perceptions
•• minimisation of errors or mistakes
•• greater support from peers
•• preparation for professional life (provides more of a ‘real-world’
experience)
•• development of skills that include time management, coordination,
communication, conflict resolution, organisation, negotiation, problem-
solving, delegation, leadership and following.

While many of the benefits occur in any type of group work, deeper and
more sustained benefits to learning and understanding, and the development of
creativity and higher-level reasoning strategies, are more likely to come from
formal collaborative group work.

Activity Share your group-work experiences

Take a moment to think about your experience of working in groups. Join with your group
members to share your experiences.

1 Has your past group work been more like collaboration or cooperation? Give
examples.
2 In what ways has your group work been successful or enjoyable?
3 What were the challenges you faced in previous group work?
 C h a p t e r 9 : C o l l a b o r a t i v e L e a r n i n g 197

Roles people play in groups

While working in a group, each individual member usually plays one or more Roles are socially
recognised patterns of
roles. A role refers to the particular behaviours or functions that a group
behaviour.
member undertakes as he or she participates within the group. There are many
roles that group members play that help the group to function effectively, and
there are some roles that can prevent the group from achieving its goals.
Even though there are many different roles that people can take within a
group, they fall within two main types. The first includes roles that are largely
implicit or informal; that is, they emerge within the group as part of the natural
process of group development. These roles include task, maintenance and
dysfunctional roles.
The second type of role is one that the group consciously or explicitly Task, maintenance and
procedural roles keep
allocates to members of the group. These are procedural roles.
the group on track and
working well as a team.

Task roles
Task roles are those that are focused on achieving specific aspects of the group’s
goals and tend to give the group a sense of purpose and accomplishment.

Table 9.1 Characteristics of task roles

Task roles Characteristics

Initiator ••Generates new ideas and actions
Information/opinion giver ••Gives information
••States opinions
Information/opinion seeker ••Asks the group for information
••Asks the group for their opinions
Elaborator/clarifier/coordinator ••Listens carefully to help to explain ideas
••Asks questions to clarify ideas
••Offers examples and makes links between ideas
Evaluator/critic ••Judges ideas or work produced by the group
Orienteer ••Redirects the group’s thinking or work
Energiser ••Gives the group energy
••Makes the group feel it can achieve
Summariser ••Restates the main ideas, decisions and plans, to keep the
group on track

Note: Adapted from Benne, K., & Sheats, P. cited in Small Group Communication, by T. Borchers, 1999, Allyn &
Bacon, Communication Studies website: <[Link]/commstudies/groups/[Link]>.
 198 essential academic skills

Activity Task roles

In your group, discuss:

1 What task role or roles do you recall playing within a group you have previously
worked within?
2 What did you do in your task roles?
3 Were there any task role or roles you felt a group needed but were not done? How did
this have an impact on the group?
4 Give positive feedback to your group members (that is, provide information that can
help team members recognise their contribution to the group) on the task roles you
see they are performing within your current group. See if you can:
•• name the role a team member performed
•• describe what was done that helped you recognise it as part of that role
•• comment on how that role helped the group perform their task.

Maintenance roles
Maintenance roles are those that are focused on the social aspects of the group.
They help to build a cooperative and safe environment for all group members.
Maintenance roles ensure that relationships in the group are conducive to the
effective functioning of the group.

Table 9.2 Characteristics of maintenance roles

Maintenance roles Characteristics

Encourager/supporter ••Supports the ideas and work of others
••Builds group member confidence
••Invites quiet members to speak
Harmoniser/mediator ••Works to resolve differences between group members
Compromiser/reconciler ••Solves disagreements and maintains harmony by
making concessions (giving up some of his or her
favoured ideas)

Gatekeeper ••Keeps ideas flowing (e.g. asks for clarification and advises
others when the discussion drifts off track or is being
dominated by a few)

Group observer ••Monitors group processes and offers feedback to the

group on how the group is progressing

Follower ••Agrees with all group decisions

Note: Adapted from Benne, K., & Sheats, P. cited in Small Group Communication, by T. Borchers, 1999, Allyn and
Bacon, Communication Studies website: <[Link]/commstudies/groups/[Link]>.
 C h a p t e r 9 : C o l l a b o r a t i v e L e a r n i n g 199

Maintenance roles Activity

Take a moment to think about the following questions. Then discuss your responses with
your group.

1 Who do you know that would be good at being a harmoniser? Think of an example of
how you have seen that person perform this kind of role. What kinds of things did that
person do or say to make you think of him or her as a harmoniser? Do you think how
the person behaved was effective? Perhaps that person was you!
2 What is the value of naming particular task and maintenance roles? Prepare a
summary of your group position and report back to the class.

Dysfunctional roles
Not all roles within groups are functional. Some roles reduce the likelihood
of the group achieving its goals, or make it very difficult for the group to
function effectively. Some people refer to dysfunctional roles within groups as
individualistic; that is, they are roles motivated by self-interest.

Table 9.3 Characteristics of dysfunctional roles

Dysfunctional roles Characteristics

Aggressor ••Acts aggressively towards group members by
criticising or blaming
••Makes other group members feel inadequate
or wrong or inferior

Blocker ••Interferes with the group’s progress

Rebel ••Breaks group norms (expected ways of
behaving) and refuses to cooperate

Self-seeker (includes: recognition seeker/ ••Tries to make him- or herself the centre of the
show-off/lobbyist/help seeker) group’s focus. Attempts to achieve personal
goals ahead of the group’s goals
•• Tries to grab the group focus by taking no
responsibility and always asking for help

Dominator ••Tries to control the group through any means,

for example, by using flattery, or fear, or
bullying/aggression
•• May give directions abruptly, or interrupt
when others are speaking

Social loafer/free loader/hitchhiker ••Lacks commitment to the group, makes few

or no contributions (see explanation outlined
later in the chapter)

Note: Adapted from Benne, K., & Sheats, P. cited in Small Group Communication, by T. Borchers, 1999, Allyn
and Bacon, Communication Studies website: <[Link]/commstudies/groups/[Link]>.
 200 essential academic skills

Activity Dysfunctional roles

In your group discuss dysfunctional roles. Consider:

1 What happened in any group you have been a member of, if someone played a
dysfunctional role? (Give examples from your own experience.)
2 What would you do if any member showed dysfunctional behaviours in a group?
3 Each of the dysfunctional roles has a useful aspect. What could be useful in each of
the dysfunctional roles above?
4 What could you do to encourage a person playing a dysfunctional role to use his or
her insights and energy in a productive manner?

Procedural roles
Procedural roles are Whether roles develop explicitly or implicitly, everyone in a group plays a role.
explicitly adopted by A well-organised group usually formally or explicitly allocates some roles for
group members.
group members; in particular those that are procedural in nature. Procedural
roles are important pragmatic roles that help the group to achieve its goals.
They need to be decided early in the life of the group. Group members who are
allocated procedural roles rely heavily on the assistance of those that undertake
implicit task and maintenance roles.

Table 9.4 Characteristics of procedural roles

Procedural roles Characteristics

Leader/coordinator/ ••Takes responsibility for overseeing, managing and guiding
chairperson structure, purpose, roles and responsibilities within the group
••Sets the agenda of meetings and ensures the group keeps to
the agenda
••Establishes and maintains a positive group environment
Recorder/secretary ••Takes notes and keeps a record of group actions, decisions
and plans
••Reminds group members of meeting times
Technical support ••Provides resources and access to resources needed by the
group (e.g. obtains any electronic equipment that the group
might need, such as tape recorders, computer equipment)
•• Completes practical tasks for the group (e.g. copies resources
for the whole group, navigates computer software when
others are not familiar with it)

Diplomat ••Reminds group members of work that is due

••Follows up on members who have not completed their work
••Encourages and supports any member who is having trouble
with his or her work
••Involves the whole team in deciding what to do when work
cannot be completed
 C h a p t e r 9 : C o l l a b o r a t i v e L e a r n i n g 201

Finding what roles suit you best Activity

Go to our website <[Link]/orc/turner2e> and use the Group Roles Inventory to
identify the role that best suits you when working in a group.

How groups develop

Groups that come together formally to achieve a particular goal usually go Groups pass through
through a number of stages in their development. The four stages are: forming, four stages of
development: forming,
storming, norming and performing (Tuckman, 1965). storming, norming and
performing.

Forming
During the forming stage, members are getting to know one another. They
are usually polite and reserved, and there is often quite a bit of uncertainty
about the goals of the group and the roles that people will play. In spite of
the uncertainty, there is little overt conflict or disagreement over what is
discussed. Criticism is avoided or kept to a minimum, and any decisions that
are made about the goals of the group and how it is to function are for the most
part tentative.

Figure 9.1 Group development

4 Performing 1 Forming
Group begins to Group members
achieve its goals. get to know each
other.

3 Norming 2 Storming
Group establishes Some conflict may
agreement on the emerge about
way to proceed. goals and roles.
202 essential academic skills

At this stage in the development of the group it is very important to focus

on developing effective social relationships within the group. The group’s social
relationships are just as important as the task. When your group first comes
together, as you are getting to know each other, it might be useful to remind
everyone of the importance of keeping an eye on how the group is working
together as well as keeping an eye on the task. In your first meeting, talk about
the stages of group development and acknowledge the difficulties that the group
might experience. Share your experiences of group work and talk about ways to
avoid the pitfalls of group work.
At this stage, group members can help the group move forward by:

•• getting to know group members

•• getting to know the group task
•• looking for procedures the group can use to help group functioning (see
‘Meetings: setting up the group’, on pages 212–213)
•• setting out expectations for group behaviour (see ‘Creating a safe-ideas
climate’, on pages 214–215);
•• suggesting ways to organise the work.

Storming
Conflict sometimes arises once a group begins decision-making. This is the
storming stage. At this point in the group’s development the uncertainty of the
forming stage is still present, but individuals are more willing to express their
disagreement about how the group should function and what the aims of the
group should be.
Group members need to work together to resolve the conflicts experienced
in the storming stage. Conflict that is managed well in this stage usually results
in decisions that serve the group well as a foundation for effective group
processes. The section on ‘Managing group work challenges’ below describes a
number of skills that are useful in dealing with conflict within a group.

Norming
After passing through the storming stage, groups usually move into the norming
stage. This is when the group unites and rallies with a spirit of collaboration,
cooperation and coordination, and consolidates the commonly understood
procedures and guidelines that either endured or emerged as new during the
storming stage. Communication at this point tends to be more positive, with
members feeling more secure with their place and role within the group.
Effective groups begin to express viewpoints openly and respectfully, and ideas
and opinions are listened to in an active and productive way.
 C h a p t e r 9 : C o l l a b o r a t i v e L e a r n i n g 203

Performing
With a common view of the goals of the group and the ways in which the group
is to achieve them, the group automatically moves into the performing stage.
Members productively and supportively engage in tasks that more effectively
achieve the group’s goals. It is at this stage that the benefits of collaboration, or
working as a group, really become clear.
The single iteration of the cycle, which incorporates the four stages of group
development as has just been described, of course is the ideal. There is no
guarantee that if your group reaches the performing stage, group interaction
will be straightforward and trouble free. Once at the performing stage, problems
can emerge, and where they do your group may find itself back in the storming
stage. If problems do arise in the performing stage it is likely that they are
by-products of problems not fully resolved in the storming and norming stages.

Managing group work challenges

Because of the well-known benefits of group work, you will no doubt find
yourself undertaking at least one or two formal group work assignments each
semester. However, while there are obvious benefits to be gained from group
work, it is not always easy. The skills needed to make teams work can take a long
time to develop. As well, no matter how skilled you may be, all groups are likely to
experience difficulties as a natural part of group development. Moreover, other
members may not have either the skill or interest to support good group working.
There are three main reasons that groups fail or are not as successful as
they could be: conflict, social loafing and a lack of leadership. In this section we
examine these challenges and consider ways they may be overcome.

Conflict
Conflict within groups can be caused by many things. For example, it can come
about as a consequence of misunderstandings about roles and responsibilities,
personality clashes, cultural misunderstandings and uncooperative behaviour,
or simply as a symptom of the stress and frustration that can come from trying
to balance the demands of study, work and life.
Conflict is a very natural part of all groups. It can occur at any time.
However, as outlined earlier, it typically occurs in the storming stage of group
development, and sometimes in the performing stage. During this stage,
disagreements and criticisms emerge over such things as values, perspectives,
goals, power and roles.
 204 essential academic skills

If conflict does occur in your group it can be very dysfunctional. If it is allowed

to escalate (for example, by gossip, isolation of group members or antagonism)
it is likely to result in reduced output from the group, a lack of creativity and
a hostile and unpleasant group environment. Ignoring or avoiding conflict can
also result in similar outcomes.
Conflict, however, can also be a healthy and creative aspect of group work.
Conflict can result in a greater understanding of the issues being contested and
the problems being investigated. Drucker (1977), for example, believes that when
there is a clash of opinions competing alternatives can be seriously considered,
which results in better outcomes and those involved gain a greater appreciation
of the issues.
When conflict does arise in your group, you should aim to involve all group
members in any attempt to overcome the negative impacts and to maximise the
possibility of a positive outcome. Managing conflict so that it does not impact
too negatively on the group is difficult. It takes a conscious effort and good
communication skills.

Activity Handling conflict

Before moving on, take a moment to discuss the following points with your group, and
then share a summary of your conclusions with the class.

1 Each group member should think of an experience he or she has had where engaging
in conflict rather than avoiding it has resulted in positive outcomes.
2 Discuss how the conflict was handled so that those involved benefited.

Preventing and dealing with conflict: key communication skills

Effective collaboration that turns conflict into positive outcomes requires
communication skills that include active listening and respectful open
communication. It also requires attitudes and attributes that include mutual
trust, tolerance and sensitivity to different values, especially when you are
working in mixed cultural groups.

Preventing and dealing with conflict: effective listening

Conflict can lead to
Good listening skills are very important in dealing with conflict and ensuring
positive outcomes
when you use good an effective collaborative relationship. Most people consider themselves good
communication skills. listeners; however, in truth, listening is not easy. Many of us hear, but do not
listen.
 C h a p t e r 9 : C o l l a b o r a t i v e L e a r n i n g 205

Listening involves two main aspects:

•• receiving a message without distraction

•• understanding the message that has been sent.
The second aspect identified above is what really distinguishes listening Active listening leads to
from hearing. When we listen for understanding, we are said to be actively better understanding.

listening. This form of listening is particularly useful when there is conflict.

Active listening is partly about giving the speaker feedback about what we have
understood him or her to say, and partly about seeking more information to
check our understanding of what the person has said.
Active listening involves three main behaviours:

•• attending: focusing on the person who is speaking;

•• encouraging: inviting the speaker to provide more detail about what he or
she thinks and feels
•• reflecting: checking your understanding of what the speaker has said by
restating what he or she has said and/or asking for more information.

Effective active listening can be used to improve interpersonal

communication and reduce conflict, and is particularly effective in groups.

Practise your listening skills Activity

In your group, prepare a short report on Australian culture.

1 Discuss the topic, making sure that all opinions are listened to well.
2 Make sure all ideas are fully explored.
3 Use the listening skills of attending, encouraging and reflecting.
4 Report your findings to the class.

Preventing and dealing with conflict: assertiveness

All group members, in spite of their role in the group, need to be assertive (have
respectful open communication) in their interactions with other members
of their group. Being assertive can overcome two communication barriers:
passivity and aggression.
When group members behave passively, they may not be respecting their
own right to express an opinion. In addition, they may not be showing respect
for the rights of others to hear all possible opinions. By being passive the whole
group may be disadvantaged. If you have an idea or an opinion, express it openly,
as it may lead to more effective outcomes for the group.
 206 essential academic skills

Aggressive behaviours can also be equally as disadvantageous for the

group. When individuals speak or behave aggressively they demonstrate a lack
of respect for those they are communicating with. Aggressive behaviour can
cause other group members to feel frustrated and alienated, which may lead to
reduced collaboration and second-rate problem-solving.
Use the principles of For some people assertiveness comes naturally. They speak their ideas
assertiveness to help confidently and respectfully. Others are shy or they speak and act aggressively.
avoid conflict.
For those in the latter group it is useful to keep the following key aspects of
assertiveness in mind when working in groups.
Assertive group behaviours include:

•• open expression (sharing your ideas confidently)

•• respectful disagreement
•• respect for your own rights
•• respect for the rights of others
•• respect for the interests of the group as a whole.
Assertiveness is not an easy skill, but it is one of the key behaviours of
effective collaboration. If at all times you are guided by the five basic principles
of assertiveness in groups, then you should be able to speak and act so that you
deal with conflict well.
For example, the following statement is what an assertive group member
might say or think before giving an opinion that is different from the opinions of
others in the group.

I understand that within the group there may be a variety of views on this
topic; however, I believe that the group would benefit from a consideration
of all views before a decision is made. Let us listen to everyone’s views and
think about their pros and cons before making a decision. My opinion is …

This statement recognises the speaker’s right to an opinion; it also recognises

the rights of others in the group that may want to have a say, and it recognises
that the group would benefit from all ideas being heard before any action is
taken. As you become better at being assertive you will not need to speak about
the assertive attitude, you will just state your opinion with confidence and
respect.

Thinking Stop here for a moment. Take this opportunity to think about a situation where you might
have been more assertive in your interactions with another person. Think about how you
did handle the situation. If you had been more assertive, what would you have said or done?
 C h a p t e r 9 : C o l l a b o r a t i v e L e a r n i n g 207

Preventing and dealing with conflict: intercultural competence

Not everyone thinks and acts the same. It is important to remember this when
we work in monocultural groups, and even more important when we work in
multicultural groups. Cultural misunderstandings can be the cause of some
group conflict. However, it is impossible for each of us, in a short time, to fully
understand the cultures of the individuals we might work with in a group. We
can strive to be more interculturally competent, however, and by following
some key principles we may be able to avoid some of the misunderstandings
that can lead to conflict.
You can become more interculturally competent by:

•• valuing diversity
•• understanding your own culturally specific attitudes, values and
assumptions
•• understanding how your actions impact on individuals from other
cultures
•• using effective interpersonal communication skills such as active
listening and assertiveness.

Using effective communication skills early in the life of the group is the
best way to prevent and deal with conflict. However, if you are faced with a
particularly serious conflict within your group, and your attempts to solve the
conflict with respectful open expression and active listening have failed, it is
recommended that you ask your tutor for some help.

Preventing and dealing with conflict: moving towards consensus

Preventing the negative outcomes of conflict is just as important as managing
conflict so that it contributes positively to the group. It is important for all group
members to feel confident to express their opinions. However, when there is a
range of different opinions on an issue, groups need to be able to navigate their
way towards a consensus. A consensus is where all group members consider
different ideas and either agree on a preferred option, or agree on a new, more
effective option.
A consensus method of conflict resolution and problem-solving takes time
and some skill. However, it is well worth the effort. Advice on how to achieve
consensus can be found later in this chapter under ‘Managing micro processes:
making decisions and solving problems’. Other methods of decision-making
can be a lot less effective. For example, with a ‘majority rule’ method, where
group members select and vote for the best of a range of conflicting opinions or
options, commitment to the outcome can be reduced. With this method a small
number (a minority) of group members may not be happy with the final decision
208 essential academic skills

and may silently withdraw or become alienated from the decision and the group,
or worse still, they may even sabotage attempts to achieve the goal agreed to by
other group members.

Social loafing
Another very common problem that can occur within group work is ‘social
loafing’ (otherwise known as ‘freeloading’ or ‘hitchhiking’). Social loafing is when
one or more members of a group fail to contribute fairly towards the group’s
goals. There are a number of explanations for social loafing, including poor
motivation, alienation and laziness.

Table 9.5 Reasons for social loafing

Poor motivation Some students may not feel very motivated working in groups
because they believe their individual contributions will not be
evaluated (Karau & Williams, 1993)

Alienation Some students may disengage from or feel alienated within a

group because their initial ideas were rejected and they don’t feel
their contributions will be appreciated

Laziness Students who are lazy can get away with it because with group
work it is much harder to detect levels of contribution because
often other members of the group will compensate for the lack of
effort of a few

Social loafing is less likely to occur in group work that requires each group
member to submit his or her own individual final response to the assignment
after initially working as a group on earlier phases of the task. However, with this
kind of group work, social loafing can take the form of collusion. A student may
use too much of the work of another student and submit it as his or her own work.
Social loafing and collusion, however, do not have to be an outcome of group
work. One method that your lecturer may use to detect social loafing, especially
where it is a result of laziness, is the use of peer evaluation.

Avoiding social loafing: peer evaluation

There are two main ways that a lecturer might implement peer evaluation
within group work.

•• At the end of a project: each group member submits an evaluation report

on each person within the group that can be used by the lecturer to award
marks fairly. By using this kind of peer evaluation, social loafers do not
unfairly benefit from the efforts of others.
 C h a p t e r 9 : C o l l a b o r a t i v e L e a r n i n g 209

•• During a project: progressive peer evaluation can be used to intervene

early, demonstrating the probable consequences of social loafing on
individual marks if members continue to over rely on the efforts of others.
This could encourage a social loafer to change his or her behaviour. Early
evaluation of this kind can also be useful to uncover other dysfunctional
factors that may be at play in the group before the group gets too far into
a project.

Go to our website <[Link]/orc/turner2e> to see an example of a

peer evaluation questionnaire that your lecturer might use in your group work.

Avoiding social loafing: encouraging commitment

From the beginning, however, to avoid social loafing and collusion you must
ensure that at all times each group member feels that the group’s goals are
important and that his or her contribution is valued. You can do this by:

•• assigning each group member a meaningful task that is clearly important

to achieving the group’s goal
•• as much as possible, ensuring group members get a choice as to which tasks Meaningful tasks help
to keep group members
they would prefer to undertake; then they will feel more obliged to the
engaged in the group.
group and more likely to contribute fairly to the outcome (Rothwell, 2004)
•• encouraging and supporting all group members, particularly if they are
experiencing difficulties
•• checking on progress (see section ‘Meetings: performing tasks, and
monitoring progress’).

If members of your group have felt engaged in the group work and the group
has generated some effective outcomes, they are likely to feel more committed
to the group and more confident and willing to contribute equitably to a group
product or an individual component of a group assignment. Greater commitment
and confidence will in most cases also reduce the temptation for collusion.

Lack of leadership
The role of the group leader or coordinator is a very important one. This is
especially true for group tasks being undertaken by first-year university
or college students. Groups that do not have adequate leadership often face
considerable difficulty achieving their objectives.
Leaderless groups often lack:

•• direction
•• discipline
 210 essential academic skills

•• structure
•• cohesion
•• organisation
•• a suitable plan for achieving objectives.
It usually takes the direction and guidance of a leader for groups to
successfully identify and define the goals of the group as well as effectively
allocate and coordinate the tasks needed to achieve the goals. Leaders can
also be useful in monitoring interactions within the group and intervening
where necessary to facilitate the maintenance of an environment conducive to
effective group performance.

Avoiding a leaderless group: choosing a leader

The less experienced you are with working in groups, the more important it is
to formally designate a leader for your group. As you become more experienced
you may not need to formalise leadership in your group. The more experienced
you and your fellow group members become with working in groups, the more
likely it will be that leadership functions within the group will be shared.
Choose your leader The group leader should be formally designated early in the life of the group,
early to help give your
preferably during the forming stage of the group’s development. When a leader is
group some direction.
chosen early, he or she can help guide the group through the rough storming stage
of the group’s development. A group leader can be chosen by the group members
themselves, or the lecturer. Leaders chosen by the group are likely to be more
readily accepted by the group, and go on to successfully lead the group to task
completion.
During the group’s first meeting, group members can nominate others or
themselves and then take a vote to elect the group’s choice. This voting approach
requires some preparation; in particular, candidates need to have an opportunity
to describe to their group their suitability for the role. As part of the ‘getting to
know you’ stage of group formation, group members could be asked to describe
their prior experiences with group work and their particular expertise related
to the group work task. All group members then have a chance to decide who
they would have confidence in as a leader for their group.

Avoiding a leaderless group: leadership functions

As you can imagine, the role of leader is not easy. Not only is the leader
responsible for the effective functioning of the group, he or she is also
required to participate fully in the group as a regular group member. Balancing
leadership functions while participating as an equal in discussions and tasks
takes skill. However, if other members of the group share the load by taking
on necessary tasks and maintenance roles, the burden on the leader can be
 C h a p t e r 9 : C o l l a b o r a t i v e L e a r n i n g 211

reduced. Some of the do’s and do nots associated with group leadership are
outlined in Table 9.6.
As a consequence of the power that comes with the role of leader, other
group members may look to you for guidance. Your behaviour can have both a
positive and negative influence on the actions of your fellow group members (for
example, arriving and leaving meetings on time, interrupting and supporting).
Modelling good group work behaviours (using good behaviours yourself as an
example for others) is an important characteristic of good leadership.

Table 9.6 Leadership do’s and do nots

Leadership do’s Leadership do nots

As a group leader you need to ensure that: As a group leader you need to:
••open and frequent effective communication ••avoid dominating rather than facilitating
is maintained group process
••an agreed aim for the group work is ••be careful not to impose your own ideas on
established other members of the group
••all group members are given a chance to ••avoid having a say, or at least the final say,
express their views on everything that is said and done within
••mutual respect, understanding and trust are the group
fostered ••avoid being the only one to answer questions
••all group members are committed to the raised in the group
goals of the group
••there are clear roles and responsibilities for
each participant
••participants feel a part of the process and the
outcome
••group meetings stay on track with
established agendas
••records are kept of decisions made by the
group

Do you think you have what it takes to be a leader? Activity

Complete the Leadership Skills Inventory in the resource kit for lecturers to see if you
have leadership tendencies.

Managing micro processes

Overcoming the challenges that can disrupt group work can take a considerable Manage your group by
paying attention to the
amount of time and effort. However, if your group follows some of the basic
micro processes.
guidelines outlined above you are likely to avoid, or at least reduce the impact
that some of the challenges can have on your group. However, these challenges
are not the only issues that your group needs to focus its attention on. There are
212 essential academic skills

other matters beyond dealing with conflict, social loafing and leadership that
need to be considered.
Micro processes are the administrative and procedural activities needed
within a group to create maximum efficiency. Micro processes include:

•• managing meetings
•• setting up the group
•• performing tasks and monitoring progress
•• dividing the work
•• creating a project timeline
•• creating a safe-ideas climate
•• creating a productive group
•• making decisions and solving problems
•• dealing with dysfunctional behaviour
•• finalising and pulling the project together.
Paying attention to micro processes and making sure they are managed well
can mean the difference between an effective group and a group that is not so
effective. Micro processes encompass the general organisation and management
of group time and tasks, as well as the additional strategic and behavioural do’s
and do nots that are useful in overcoming some of the common pitfalls within
groups. With micro processes we start from the very beginning.

Meetings: setting up the group

In your early meetings your group is subject to the conditions described in the
forming stage of group development. There is likely to be some uncertainty
about how to act and what to do. In spite of this, aim to achieve a few basic
outcomes that will help you set up an efficient working group. You will probably
use two meetings to cover the following goals:

•• spend time getting to know your fellow group members

•• exchange contact details
•• clarify group purpose, goals, objectives, due dates, resources and
assessment criteria
•• negotiate procedural roles (leader, recorder, technical supporter and
diplomat)
•• establish a realistic and responsible project time line (see the following
section)
•• negotiate and decide upon the division of work (see the following section)
•• negotiate and decide on a meeting schedule (based on such factors as
each member’s availability and location)
 C h a p t e r 9 : C o l l a b o r a t i v e L e a r n i n g 213

•• decide on the processes to be used in subsequent meetings (for example,

processes for decision-making, conflict resolution and dealing with non-
working members)
•• establish expectations for member behaviour (include expectations about
meeting attendance and task completion)
•• ensure the ‘recorder’ takes minutes of the proceedings
•• set an agenda (a list of items to be dealt with at a meeting) for your next
meeting.

Meetings: performing tasks and monitoring progress

As your group develops, your meetings will be very task orientated. In these
meetings, guided by your group leader, your group should aim to follow the
procedures below:

•• refer to the agenda to note what items are to be addressed in the meeting
•• briefly remind yourselves of the decisions made in the previous meeting
•• check group progress against plans and the established project timeline
•• organise support for any member having difficulty
•• establish an agenda for the next meeting
•• record the minutes of the meeting
•• finish the meeting on time
•• evaluate the effectiveness of your meeting.
Dividing the work
Ensuring that group members are assigned an equal distribution of the tasks is
an important aspect of the success of a project. However, the division of work
does not just involve breaking the project up into equal parts. The division of
work can have an impact on the level of commitment that a group member feels
towards the group, and therefore possibly encourage or discourage social loafing.
As outlined earlier in the chapter, in order to encourage commitment, group
members need to be assigned tasks that are meaningful and preferably ones they
have had some part in choosing. To divide up the work effectively you need to:

•• identify and list all necessary tasks and define their significance in terms
of the overall project
•• be very specific with what the group expects from each member for
each task (general comments like ‘review the literature’ are not specific
enough)
•• estimate how long the task should take—set deadlines
214 essential academic skills

•• negotiate tasks with group members around personal weaknesses,

strengths and preferences
•• divide the tasks up fairly between members
•• provide group support (feedback) for all tasks, whether completed
individually or jointly
•• review the list at a later point to ensure all tasks have been identified
correctly at the start (you may need to renegotiate tasks and deadlines)
•• ensure that the group oversees the creation of the complete project (see
the following section on ‘Finalising and pulling the project together’).

If a member of your group leaves part of the way through your project,
your group may have to renegotiate the way that work has been divided up. If
a member leaves towards the end of the project, and has not contributed very
much towards the project by the time they leave, you may have to renegotiate
project expectations with your lecturer.

Creating a project timeline

All group projects should be guided by a plan. Once the goals of the group have
been determined, and decisions made as to who will do what, the group needs
to negotiate a timeline that can guide actions. For it to be effective, the timeline
needs to:

•• be realistic
•• consider all opportunities and constraints (time, resources and skill)
•• involve everyone in the decision-making
•• align with imposed project deadlines
•• build in flexibility.
Our website <[Link]/orc/turner2e> contains a project timeline
sheet that you might like to use to help your group to establish a realistic and
practical timeline.

Creating a safe-ideas climate

Effective meetings rely on a safe climate within the group that encourages open
expression and testing of ideas. Managing and maintaining a safe-ideas climate
relies heavily on the effectiveness of those undertaking the types of group
maintenance and task roles outlined earlier in the chapter. Effective engagement
of these roles creates and maintains a safe-ideas climate that encourages:

•• effective brainstorming processes (all ideas welcome, with evaluation

and constructive criticism left until all ideas have been shared)
•• contribution and involvement
 C h a p t e r 9 : C o l l a b o r a t i v e L e a r n i n g 215

•• respect and valuing of opinions

•• support and encouragement of others
•• the valuing of different perspectives.
Creating a productive group: making decisions and
problem-solving
Good problem-solving and decision-making is the key to the success of the
group. Collaborative problem-solving is what group work is about, so if you fail
to get problem-solving processes right, then you are likely to end up with an
inferior group outcome. Effective problem-solving involves all group members
in the following processes:

•• defining and clarifying the problem

•• gathering all the facts and understanding their relationship to the issue
or problem
•• thinking about and suggesting possible options and solutions
•• considering and comparing the advantages and disadvantages of each
option or solution
•• selecting the best option
•• deciding how to best implement or achieve the chosen option.

When your group gets stuck, confused or off course, the best solution is to:

•• identify and acknowledge the process problem (for example, we are stuck,
confused or off course) and explore possible reasons
•• make explicit the meeting objectives as outlined in the agenda
•• acknowledge time constraints
•• restate the content problem (ask: ‘What are the issues being explored?’)
•• summarise the progress up to that point
•• ask for an indication of agreement or disagreement
•• ask for suggestions and alternative views
•• take a break.

Dealing with dysfunctional behaviour

It is rare to experience group work that is not disrupted with some kind
of dysfunctional behaviour or another. The ways to avoid and to deal with
dysfunctional behaviour are to:

•• establish expectations about appropriate behaviour (or ground rules)

early in the life of the group
•• decide early how as a group you will deal with dysfunctional behaviour
216 essential academic skills

•• don’t make assumptions about an individual’s behaviour (for example,

don’t say: ‘It is just because X is lazy’)
•• avoid personal attacks (don’t say ‘X is lazy’, but say ‘X has not yet submitted
his or her work’)
•• tell the person about the problem by clearly describing his or her
behaviour and saying what impact it is having on the functioning of the
group
•• give the individual an opportunity to explain and correct his or her
behaviour
•• offer support
•• if necessary, penalise the member (for example, by revealing the lack of
effort in the peer review) but do so in a fair and equitable manner (after
all the procedures above have been attempted)
•• seek assistance from your tutor if you are unable to deal with the
problem
•• be prepared to exclude the individual if the behaviour threatens the
effectiveness of the group.

Finalising and pulling the project together

Preparing the final product for submission is always difficult. If your group
has merely cooperated in the gathering of information and largely been able to
undertake separate and distinguishable parts of a project, the task of pulling it
all together into one assignment is less difficult.
On the other hand, if you have engaged in a more collaborative process and
involved all group members in a full experience of the project elements, the task
of presenting one coherent product is more difficult. Depending on how you have
divided up the work, and depending on what your final product is expected to
look like (essay, report or presentation), you might think about the following tips:

•• before anyone begins to finalise elements of the project you need to meet
as a group at least once to discuss final direction
•• each group member then needs to keep in touch with at least one other
member of the group to have that person look over drafts
•• before submission, time needs to be put aside for everyone to review all
elements of the project to ensure consistency and coherency
•• once the group is happy with the different parts of the project, one person
should be chosen to integrate the parts into a final product, adding an
introduction and an agreed conclusion
•• finally, each group member should read the final draft before it is
submitted.
 C h a p t e r 9 : C o l l a b o r a t i v e L e a r n i n g 217

Go to our website <[Link]/orc/turner2e> for more activities on the skills Activity

covered in this chapter.

Summary
Group work involves a number of people working together to achieve a common
goal. Group work can be collaborative or cooperative. Working in groups in
your study provides you with experiences that result in better educational and
professional outcomes. However, in spite of the benefits of group work, it can be
very challenging.
Research has shown that groups develop in a typical manner. Development
tends to follow four main stages: forming, storming, norming and performing.
Within groups individuals undertake different roles. Some roles, for example,
procedural roles, are explicit, while others are implicit. Implicit roles include
task, maintenance and dysfunctional roles.
At different stages in group development, and while undertaking different
roles, groups and participants experience various challenges. Some of these
challenges include conflict, social loafing and leadership issues. By ensuring
that participants engage in effective communication behaviours, such as
assertiveness and active listening, and employ proactive strategies, most
significant group challenges can be overcome.
Successful group work also relies on groups following some key guidelines.
The micro processes that make up everyday group functioning can also have
an impact on the effectiveness of group work. Managing micro processes is an
essential element of group work. You can not leave these processes to chance.
When you take a formal approach to managing the tasks and interactions within
your group you will have a greater chance of success.

Glossary
active listening listening for understanding; messages are heard without
distraction and checked for accuracy.
aggressive behaviour communicating without respect for the listener; which can
involve speaking loudly and angrily, interrupting others and manipulating
the conversation.
assertiveness the expression of your opinions and ideas in an open and
respectful manner.
218 essential academic skills

consensus agreement after consideration of different ideas and opinions.

division of work assigning an equal distribution of tasks among group members.
dysfunctional roles individualistic, self-motivated roles that reduce the
likelihood of the group achieving its goals.
formal group work work or tasks undertaken by a group that attracts a mark or
grade.
forming the first stage of group development, where group members are getting
to know each other.
group work work (for example, activities, exercises, tasks, discussions, problem-
solving, presentations and projects) undertaken by a number of people all
striving towards one primary goal or purpose.
intercultural competence the degree to which a person values diversity, and
how aware each is of his or her own culture, and how each person’s values
and attitudes have an impact on other cultural groups.
maintenance roles roles that are focused on the social aspects of the group. They
help to build a cooperative and safe environment for all group members.
micro processes the administrative and procedural activities needed within a
group to create maximum efficiency.
norming the third stage of group development, where a group establishes
agreement on the ways to move forward to accomplish its goals.
peer evaluation method of evaluation that allows members of a group to assess
the quality and effectiveness of their own behaviour as well as that of others
in the group.
performing the fourth stage of group development, where a group starts to
achieve its stated goals and objectives.
procedural roles pragmatic roles that help the group to achieve its goals.
project timeline a plan of action outlining tasks to be completed and expected
deadlines.
roles socially recognised patterns of behaviour.
social loafing the term given to a situation where one or more members of a
group fails to contribute fairly towards the group’s goals.
storming the second stage of group development, where conflict can emerge
about goals and roles.
task roles roles that are focused on achieving specific aspects of the
group’s goals. Task roles tend to give the group a sense of purpose and
accomplishment.