Review

Wednesday, April 9, 2025 8:35 PM

I. Kinematics: Describing Motion (1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.4, 1.5)

• Scalars and Vectors: The foundation of kinematics lies in distinguishing between scalar quantities (magnitude only, e.g., distance) and vector quantities (magnitude and direction, e.g., displacement, velocity, acceleration). Students will learn to "Describe scalar and
vector quantity using magnitude and direction, as appropriate."

• The materials emphasize the graphical and algebraic representation of vectors, including drawing vectors with rulers and protractors, breaking them down into horizontal (x) and vertical (y) components, and using trigonometry (SOHCAHTOA) for algebraic
decomposition. "Since we know the magnitude of the hypotenuse and the angle, we can use SOHCAHTOA to solve for the components."

• Unit Vectors: Unit vectors (i, j, k with hats) are introduced as having a magnitude of 1 and serving solely to indicate direction. A scalar multiplier in front gives the unit vector its proper length. "The i, j, k are called unit vectors. They are a vector with a magnitude of 1,
whose only purpose is to indicate a direction."

• Vectors in component form can be easily added and subtracted by adding or subtracting their respective components. "To add two vectors, just add Rx = ax + bx and Ry = ay + by, and R = Rx + Ry! Subtraction also works the same way."

• Displacement, Velocity, and Acceleration: These are key vector quantities used to describe motion.

• Distance is defined as the total length traveled (scalar), while displacement is the change in position (vector). "Distance is the total length traveled by an object... It is a scalar quantity... Displacement is the change in position of an object. It is a vector quantity..." The
magnitude of displacement is always less than or equal to the distance traveled.

• Velocity is the rate of change of position. Average velocity is the total displacement divided by the total time. Instantaneous velocity is the velocity at a specific instant in time, conceptually introduced through the idea of making the time interval (Δt) infinitesimally
small.

• Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity (vector). Its units are derived through dimensional analysis: "a = Δv/Δt ... a = (m/s)/s = m/s2." The sign of acceleration indicates its direction relative to the chosen positive direction of motion. The term "decelerate" is
discouraged due to its potential for ambiguity. "DECELERATE IS A BAD WORD. BAD BAD BAD. It can mean positive OR negative acceleration, depending on which direction you’re moving..."

• Calculus in Kinematics: The relationship between position, velocity, and acceleration is explored using calculus. Velocity is the first derivative of the position function with respect to time (v = dx/dt), and acceleration is the first derivative of the velocity function (a =
dv/dt) or the second derivative of the position function (a = d2x/dt2). The power rule of differentiation is introduced. "By deriving the position function twice, you can get acceleration!"

• Average vs. Instantaneous: The concept of instantaneous velocity is refined through the idea of a derivative as the slope of a tangent line at an infinitesimally small scale. "When Δt is infinitesimally small, we can find the slope at that exact instant, which gives us their
instantaneous velocity."

• Representing Motion Graphically and Equationally: Motion can be represented using diagrams, graphs (position-time, velocity-time), and equations.

• The slope of a velocity-time graph represents acceleration, and the area under the curve represents displacement.

• Kinematic Equations: Standard kinematic equations for constant acceleration are likely derived (though not explicitly shown in the excerpts). The use of definite integrals to find displacement and change in velocity is mentioned. "To get the change in position
(displacement) and change in velocity, we will need to know the upper and lower bounds aka definite integral."

• Free Fall: A special case of constant acceleration where the acceleration is due to gravity (g ≈ 9.81 m/s2 downward). The importance of choosing a consistent positive direction and origin is emphasized. *"Pick a direction to be positive... Pick a place to be the origin..."
Examples of free-fall problems, including objects thrown upwards and dropped, are provided, demonstrating the application of kinematic equations. "An object in free-fall experiences no forces other than gravity."

• Reference Frames and Relative Motion: Motion is always relative to a chosen frame of reference. "All motion is relative to a reference frame, and everyone has their own frame of reference. There is no “absolute frame”." Different observers in different reference
frames may perceive the same motion differently.

• Motion in Two or Three Dimensions (Projectile Motion): The motion in horizontal and vertical directions is independent for projectiles. "The horizontal (x) and vertical (y) components are independent of one another, so they do not affect each other." The only shared
quantity is time. Horizontal motion has constant velocity (zero acceleration), while vertical motion is under constant gravitational acceleration (free fall). Key principles for analyzing horizontal projectiles and projectiles launched at an angle are introduced. "The
horizontal comp. does not accelerate (no force, ax = 0)."

II. Newton's Laws of Motion (2.1, 2.5, 2.6, 2.7, 2.8, 2.9, 2.10)

• Systems and Center of Mass (2.1): A system is a defined collection of objects. The center of mass (CoM) is a point representing the average position of the mass within the system. Its location depends on the distribution of mass. The CoM can even exist outside the
physical boundaries of an object. "Can CoM exists outside the object?" Calculating the CoM for continuous objects involves integration.

• Newton's Second Law (2.5): The acceleration of a system is directly proportional to the net force acting on it and inversely proportional to its mass (ΣF = ma). Force is measured in Newtons (N), where 1 N = 1 kg⋅m/s2. The concepts of inertial and gravitational mass are
mentioned, as well as apparent weight. Analyzing systems involving tension in strings demonstrates the application of Newton's second law in multiple dimensions.

• Gravitational Force (2.6): The gravitational force between two objects with mass is described by Newton's Law of Universal Gravitation: Fg = G(m1m2)/r2, where G is the universal gravitational constant. "This law UNIVERSAL, works everywhere, even not on Earth. We
also called this the Inverse Square Law." This force is always attractive and acts along the line connecting the centers of mass of the two objects. The acceleration due to gravity (g) near a planet's surface can be derived from this law. The variation of gravitational force
(and thus apparent weight) with distance from a planet is explored, including scenarios inside a uniform spherical Earth and a hollow spherical shell (Newton's Shell Theorem). The concept of gravitational field strength (units of N/kg) is introduced. The effect of non-
uniform density on gravitational acceleration is also considered, requiring integration.

• Friction (2.7): Friction is a resistive force that opposes motion between surfaces in contact. Static friction prevents motion from starting, while kinetic friction acts when an object is moving. The magnitudes of these forces are proportional to the normal force between
the surfaces (fs ≤ μsN and fk = μkN, where μs and μk are the coefficients of static and kinetic friction, respectively). Examples involving inclined planes demonstrate how to incorporate friction into Newton's second law problems.

• Spring Forces (2.8): Ideal springs exert a force proportional to their displacement from equilibrium (Hooke's Law: Fs = -kx, where k is the spring constant). Real springs have an elastic limit beyond which they will not return to their original shape.

• Resistive Forces (2.9): Resistive forces, such as air resistance (often modeled as Fd = kv), oppose the motion of an object through a medium. Analyzing motion with resistive forces often involves differential equations. The concept of terminal velocity (vT = mg/k) is
introduced, which is the constant velocity reached when the resistive force equals the gravitational force. Time constants (τ = m/k) are used to characterize the rate at which an object approaches terminal velocity. Equations for velocity and position as functions of
time for an object falling with linear air resistance are derived.

• Circular Motion (2.10): Objects moving in circular paths experience a centripetal acceleration directed towards the center of the circle, requiring a net centripetal force (Fc = mac = mv2/r). Examples include vertical circles and banked curves. The maximum speed on a
banked curve with friction is derived.

III. Work, Energy, and Conservation of Energy (3.2, 3.3, 3.4)

• Work (3.2): Work is done on an object by a force when the force causes a displacement of the object. It is a scalar quantity (W = F⋅d = Fdcosθ). The work-energy theorem states that the net work done on an object equals the change in its kinetic energy (Wnet = ΔK). An
example of a falling block demonstrates this principle.

• Potential Energy (3.3): Potential energy is stored energy due to the position or configuration of a system. Gravitational potential energy (Ug = mgh) near the Earth's surface is introduced, with the understanding that this equation has limitations and relies on the
assumption of a constant g. The need for a more general form of gravitational potential energy for larger distances is hinted at.

• Conservation of Energy (3.4): The total energy of an isolated system remains constant (MEi = MEf), where mechanical energy (ME) is the sum of kinetic energy (K) and potential energy (U). The work-energy principle is extended to non-isolated systems where external
work (Wext) can change the mechanical energy (Wext = ΔME). A rocket launch example demonstrates the application of conservation of energy with gravitational potential energy at large distances (Ug = -GMm/r).

IV. Momentum and Conservation of Momentum (4.2, 4.3)

• Change in Momentum and Impulse (4.2): Momentum (p = mv) is a vector quantity representing the "quantity of motion." The impulse (J = FΔt) delivered to an object equals the change in its momentum (J = Δp). An example of a bouncing ball illustrates the calculation
of impulse.

• Conservation of Linear Momentum (4.3): In a closed system (no net external force), the total linear momentum remains constant (Σpi = Σpf). An example of a collision between a bowling ball and a pin demonstrates this principle. The importance of defining the system
is emphasized in determining whether momentum is conserved.

V. Rotational Motion (5.1-5.5, 6.1, 6.4)

• Rotational Kinematics (5.1-5.2): Rotational motion is described using angular displacement (Δθ), angular velocity (ω), and angular acceleration (α), which are analogous to their linear counterparts. The relationship between linear velocity (v) of a point on a rotating
object and the angular velocity is v = rω.

• Torque (5.3): Torque (τ = rFsinθ) is the rotational equivalent of force, causing angular acceleration. It depends on the magnitude of the force, the distance from the axis of rotation (lever arm), and the angle between the force and the lever arm. Examples include
balancing a seesaw.

• Moment of Inertia (5.4): Moment of inertia (I) is the rotational equivalent of mass, representing an object's resistance to changes in its rotational motion. It depends on the mass distribution relative to the axis of rotation. For a continuous object, it is calculated by
integrating over its mass elements (I = ∫r2dm). The moment of inertia of a disk is derived as I = ½MR2. The Parallel Axis Theorem (for calculating moment of inertia about an axis parallel to one passing through the CoM) is mentioned.

• Rotational Equilibrium and Newton's First Law in Rotational Form (5.5): A rigid system is in rotational equilibrium when the net torque acting on it is zero (Στ = 0). This is analogous to Newton's first law for linear motion (constant angular velocity if net torque is zero).
Problems involving static equilibrium often require applying both ΣF = 0 and Στ = 0.

• Rotational Kinetic Energy and Rolling (6.1): A rotating object has kinetic energy (Krot = ½Iω2). For an object rolling without slipping, the linear velocity of the center of mass (vcm) is related to the angular velocity by vcm = Rω. The total kinetic energy of a rolling object
is the sum of its translational and rotational kinetic energies (Ktotal = ½Mvcm2 + ½Iω2). An example of a rolling cylinder down a ramp demonstrates the conservation of energy in such systems.

• Conservation of Angular Momentum and Orbital Motion (6.4): For a closed system with no net external torque, the total angular momentum (L = Iω for a rotating object, L = rmvsinθ for a particle) remains constant (ΣLi = ΣLf). An example of a person moving on a
rotating platform illustrates this principle. Kepler's third law, relating the orbital period and radius of a satellite, is mentioned in the context of gravitational forces being the source of centripetal force for orbital motion. The conservation of angular momentum also

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 rotating platform illustrates this principle. Kepler's third law, relating the orbital period and radius of a satellite, is mentioned in the context of gravitational forces being the source of centripetal force for orbital motion. The conservation of angular momentum also
applies to systems interacting via gravitational forces, such as a planet orbiting a star, explaining why the planet's speed changes as its distance from the star varies.

Physics Review Sheet (Mechanics & SHM)

I. Introduction: Vectors & Kinematics

1. Scalars vs. Vectors:

○ Scalar: A quantity with magnitude (size) only. Examples: distance, speed, time, mass, energy, temperature, work, power.

○ Vector: A quantity with both magnitude AND direction. Examples: displacement, velocity, acceleration, force, momentum, impulse, torqu e, angular momentum, gravitational field.

○ Notation: Vectors are often written with an arrow above (e.g., v ⃗) or in bold (v). Magnitude is often denoted by |v⃗| or just v.

2. Position, Distance, and Displacement:

○ Loca on of an object rela ve to a de ned origin (reference point). It's a vector. In 3D, r⃗ = x + y .

○ Distance (d): Total path length traveled. Scalar. Always positive or zero.

○ D placeme t Δ Δ ⃗ ): Change in position; the straight-line vector from the initial position (xi) to the final position (xf). Vector. Δx = xf - xi or Δr⃗ = r⃗₂ - r⃗₁. Can be positive, negative, or zero. Path independent. Magnitude of displacement is ≤ distance
traveled.

3. Speed and Velocity:

○ Average Speed: Total distance divided by total time. Scalar. avg speed = distance / Δt.

○ Average Velocity (v⃗ _avg): Displacement divided by the time interval. Vector. v ⃗_avg = Δx / Δt or Δr⃗ / Δt. Direction is the same as the displacement vector.

○ Instantaneous Velocity (v⃗ ): Velocity at a specific moment in time. It's the derivative of position with respect to time. Vector. v⃗ = dx/dt or dr⃗/dt. The magnitude of instantaneous velocity is instantaneous speed. Slope of the position -time (x-t) graph.

4. Acceleration (a⃗ ):

○ Definition: The rate of change of velocity. Vector. Occurs when speed changes, direction changes, or both.

○ Average Acceleration (a⃗ _avg): Change in velocity divided by the time interval. a ⃗_avg = Δv⃗ / Δt = (v⃗f - v⃗i) / Δt.

○ Instantaneous Acceleration (a⃗ ): Acceleration at a specific moment. It's the derivative of velocity with respect to time, or the second derivative of position. a⃗ = dv⃗/dt = d²x/dt² or d²r⃗/dt². Slope of the velocity-time (v-t) graph.

○ Speeding up vs. Slowing down: An object speeds up when velocity and acceleration have the same sign/direction. It slows down when they have opposite signs/ directions. "Deceleration" is a discouraged term; use "accelerating in the negative direction."

5. Graphical Analysis of Motion:

○ Position vs. Time (x-t):

▪ Slope = Instantaneous velocity.

▪ Straight line = constant velocity.

▪ Curved line (parabolic for constant a) = changing velocity (acceleration).

○ Velocity vs. Time (v-t):

▪ Slope = Instantaneous acceleration.

▪ Area under the curve = Displacement (Δx).

▪ Straight line = constant acceleration.

▪ Horizontal line = constant velocity (a=0).

○ Acceleration vs. Time (a-t):

▪ Area under the curve = Change in velocity (Δv).

▪ Horizontal line = constant acceleration.

6. Kinematic Equations (Constant Acceleration ONLY):

○ vf = vi + at

○ Δx = vit + ½at² (or xf = xi + vit + ½at²)

○ vf² = vi² + 2aΔx

○ v_avg = (vi + vf) / 2 (Only if acceleration is constant)

7. Free Fall:

○ Motion under the influence of gravity only (air resistance negligible).

○ Constant downward acceleration: a = g ≈ 9.81 m/s² (often use 10 m/s² for estimation). The sign depends on the chosen coordinate system (usually negative if 'up' is p ositive).

○ Acceleration is always g downwards, even at the peak of trajectory when v=0.

8. Projectile Motion:

○ 2D motion under constant gravitational acceleration (ax = 0, ay = -g, if up is positive).

○ Key Principle: Treat horizontal (x) and vertical (y) motion independently. Time (t) is the common variable linking them.

○ Horizontal: Constant velocity (vx = v₀x = v₀ cosθ), ax = 0. Δx = vx t.

○ Vertical: Constant acceleration (vy = v₀y - gt, Δy = v₀y t - ½gt², etc., where v₀y = v₀ sinθ). Use standard kinematic equations.

○ Range: Horizontal distance traveled. Max range often at 45° if launch and land height are the same.

○ Max Height: Point where vy = 0.

9. Relative Motion:

○ All motion is relative to a frame of reference. An inertial frame is one not accelerating.

○ Velocities add as vectors. Subscript notation: v ⃗_AC = velocity of A relative to C.

○ v⃗_AC = v⃗_AB + v⃗_BC (Note the 'cancellation' of the inner subscript B).

○ v⃗_AB = -v⃗_BA (Velocity of A relative to B is opposite to B relative to A).

II. Forces (Dynamics)

1. Force (F⃗ ): An interaction that causes a change in motion (acceleration). A push or a pull. Vector (Unit: Newton, N = kg⋅m/s²).

2. Types of Forces:

○ Contact: Require physical touching (Normal, Friction, Tension, Applied, Spring, Drag). Arise from interatomic electrical forces at ver y small ranges.

○ Field (Long-Range): Act over a distance (Gravitational, Electric, Magnetic).

3. Newton's Laws of Motion:

○ 1st Law (Law of Inertia): An object at rest stays at rest, and an object in motion stays in motion with constant velocity, unless acted upon by a net external force. ΣF⃗_ext = 0 <=> a⃗ = 0.

▪ Inertia: Resistance to changes in velocity. Measured by mass (Inertial Mass).

▪ Equilibrium: State where ΣF⃗_ext = 0. Can be static (at rest) or dynamic (constant velocity).

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 ○ 2nd Law: The acceleration of an object/system is directly proportional to the net external force acting on it and inversely proportion al to its mass. ΣF⃗_ext = ma⃗. This is the central law linking force and motion.

○ 3rd Law: For every action (force), there is an equal and opposite reaction (force). If object 1 exerts force F ⃗₁₂ on object 2, then object 2 exerts force F ⃗₂₁ on object 1, such that F⃗₁₂ = -F⃗₂₁. These forces act on different objects and never cancel each other out
(though they may cancel other forces acting on an object).

4. Free-Body Diagrams (FBDs): A diagram showing all external forces acting on a single object or system, represented as vectors originating from the center of mass (or a point representing the object). Essential for applying Newton's 2nd Law.

5. Specific Forces Revisited:

○ Weight (F⃗ g): Gravitational force exerted by a large body (like Earth) on an object. F_g = mg. Always acts downwards (towards the center of the large body).

○ Normal Force (F⃗ N): Contact force exerted by a surface, acting perpendicular (normal) to the surface, pushing away. Its magnitude adjusts to prev ent the object from penetrating the surface (up to a limit). Not always equal to mg.

○ Friction (F⃗ f): Contact force opposing relative motion or attempted motion between surfaces. Parallel to the surface.

▪ Static Friction (F⃗ sf): Prevents sliding. Magnitude matches the applied force parallel to the surface, up to a maximum: F_sf ≤ μs F_N. F_sf,max = μs F_N. (μs = coefficient of static friction).

▪ Kinetic Friction (F⃗ kf): Opposes sliding motion. Magnitude is constant: F_kf = μk F_N. (μk = coefficient of kinetic friction). Generally, μk < μs.

▪ Rolling Friction (F⃗ r): Opposes rolling motion (due to deformation). F_r = μr F_N. Typically μr << μk.

○ Tension (F⃗ T): Pulling force transmitted by a string, rope, cable, etc. Acts along the rope, away from the object. Ideal strings are massles s, inextensible, and transmit tension equally throughout. Real ropes have mass, tension can vary.

○ Drag Force (F⃗ D): Resistive force from a fluid (air, water). Opposes motion relative to the fluid. Complex dependence on speed, shape, area, fl uid density. Often modeled as F_D = -bv (low speeds) or F_D = ½ C ρ A v² (higher speeds). C=Drag coefficient, ρ=fluid
density, A=cross-sectional area.

▪ Terminal Velocity (vT): Constant velocity reached when drag force equals the driving force (e.g., gravity). F_net = 0, so a = 0. For falling object: mg = F_D. Using F_D = -bv, vT = mg/b.

○ Spring Force (F⃗ s): Restoring force exerted by a spring. F_s = -kx (Hooke's Law for ideal springs). k = spring constant (stiffness), x = displacement from equilibrium length. Negative sign indicates it opposes displacement.

6. Systems: A defined collection of objects. Forces between objects within the system are internal. Forces exerted by objects outside the system are external. Newton's 2nd law applies to the system's total mass and the net external force: ΣF⃗_ext = M_total * a⃗_cm.
Internal forces cancel in pairs (by 3rd Law) when considering the system as a whole.

7. Center of Mass (CoM): The mass-weighted average position of a system. x_cm = (Σ mᵢxᵢ) / M_total, y_cm = (Σ mᵢyᵢ) / M_total, etc. For continuous objects: r⃗_cm = (∫ r⃗ dm) / (∫ dm). The CoM moves as if all the system's mass were concentrated there and all
external forces acted there. CoM can be outside the physical object.

8. Circular Motion Dynamics:

○ Centripetal Force (F⃗ c): The net force directed towards the center of the circular path, responsible for causing centripetal acceleration. F_c = ma_c = mv²/r = mrω² . It is not a fundamental force but the sum of the radial components of actual forces (gravity,
tension, friction, normal).

○ Centrifugal Force: A fictitious "outward" force experienced in a non-inertial (accelerating) reference frame rotating with the object. In an inertial frame, there is only an inward centripetal force.

○ Applications: Banked curves (FN component provides Fc), vertical loops (FN and Fg contribute to Fc), orbital motion (Fg provides Fc).

9. Universal Gravitation:

○ F_g = G m₁m₂ / r², where G is the universal gravitational constant, m₁ and m₂ are masses, and r is the distance between their centers.

○ Gravitational Field (g⃗ ): Force per unit test mass. g⃗ = F⃗g / m_test = GM / r² (magnitude, directed towards M).

○ Shell Theorem: A uniform spherical shell attracts external objects as if all its mass were at its center. Inside the shell, the net gravitat ional force from the shell is zero.

○ Inside a Uniform Sphere: Gravitational force F_g ∝ r (linear decrease towards center).

10. Kepler's Laws of Planetary Motion:

○ 1st: Planets orbit the Sun in ellipses with the Sun at one focus.

○ 2nd: A line joining a planet and the Sun sweeps out equal areas in equal time intervals (related to conservation of angular m omentum).

○ 3rd: The square of the orbital period (T) is proportional to the cube of the semi -major axis (a). T² = (4π² / GM_sun) a³.

III. Work, Energy, and Power

1. Work (W): Transfer of energy by a force acting over a displacement. Scalar (Unit: Joule, J = N⋅m).

○ Constant Force: W = F⃗ ⋅ Δr⃗ = F Δr cosθ. Only the component of force parallel to displacement does work.

○ Variable Force: W = ∫ F⃗ ⋅ dr⃗. Area under the Force vs. Displacement graph.

2. Kinetic Energy (K): Energy of motion. K = ½mv². Scalar.

3. Work-Energy Theorem: The net work done on an object equals its change in kinetic energy. W_net = ΔK = K_f - K_i.

4. Potential Energy (U): Stored energy associated with the configuration of a system due to conservative forces. Requires a system of interacting objects. Scalar. Choice of U=0 is arbitrary.

○ Gravitational Potential Energy (Ug):

▪ Near Earth's surface: Ug = mgh (relative to h=0). Assumes constant g.

▪ Universal: Ug = -G M m / r (relative to U=0 at r=∞). Always negative, represents binding energy.

○ Elastic (Spring) Potential Energy (Us): Us = ½kx² (relative to U=0 at x=0, equilibrium).

5. Conservative Forces: Forces for which work done is path-independent and depends only on initial and final positions (e.g., gravity, ideal spring force). Associated with a potential energy function. W_cons = -ΔU. Work done over a closed path is zero.

6. Non-Conservative Forces: Forces for which work done is path-dependent (e.g., friction, drag). Dissipate mechanical energy, often into internal energy (heat). W_nc ≠ -ΔU. Work done over a closed path is not zero.

7. Force and Potential Energy Relationship: F_x = -dU/dx (in 1D). Conservative force points in the direction of decreasing potential energy (downhill on a PE curve).

8. Conservation of Mechanical Energy (ME): If no external work is done by non-conservative forces (W_nc = 0), the total mechanical energy (ME = K + U) of a system is constant. ME_i = ME_f or ΔME = 0. K_i + U_gi + U_si = K_f + U_gf + U_sf.

9. Work and Total Energy: Work done by external forces (including non-conservative ones) changes the mechanical energy of the system. W_ext = ΔME = ME_f - ME_i. If friction is present: W_friction = ΔME (if friction is the only external/NC force). Often W_friction = -
F_f * distance. Total energy (including internal) is conserved if the system is isolated. ΔE_total = ΔME + ΔE_internal = 0.

10. Power (P): The rate at which work is done or energy is transferred. Scalar (Unit: Watt, W = J/s).

○ Average Power: P_avg = W / Δt = ΔE / Δt.

○ Instantaneous Power: P = dW/dt = dE/dt. For a force F acting on an object moving with velocity v: P = F ⃗ ⋅ v⃗ = F v cosθ.

IV. Momentum and Impulse

1. Linear Momentum (p⃗ ): "Inertia in motion". p⃗ = mv⃗. Vector (Unit: kg⋅m/s). Direction is the same as velocity.

2. Newton's 2nd Law (Momentum Form): Net external force is the rate of change of momentum. ΣF⃗_ext = dp⃗/dt. If mass is constant, this reduces to ΣF⃗_ext = m(dv⃗/dt) = ma⃗. This form is more general as it allows for changing mass (e.g., rockets).

3. Impulse (J⃗ ): Change in momentum caused by a net external force acting over time. J⃗ = ∫ F⃗_net dt = Δp⃗ = p⃗_f - p⃗_i. Vector (Unit: N⋅s or kg⋅m/s). Area under the Force vs. Time graph. Impulse-Momentum Theorem: J⃗_net = Δp⃗.

4. Conservation of Linear Momentum: If the net external force on a system is zero (ΣF⃗_ext = 0), the total linear momentum of the system remains constant. Δp⃗_total = 0 => p⃗_total, initial = p⃗_total, final. Σp⃗_i = Σp⃗_f. This is a vector conservation law; momentum
must be conserved independently in each component (x, y, z). Crucial for analyzing collisions and explosions.

5. Collisions: Interactions over a short time where momentum is conserved (external forces like gravity are negligible during the brief impact).

○ Elastic: Kinetic energy is conserved (K_i = K_f). Idealized (e.g., billiard balls approx.).

○ Inelastic: Kinetic energy is not conserved (K_f < K_i, usually). Most real-world collisions.

○ Perfectly Inelastic: Objects stick together after collision. Maximum kinetic energy is lost (converted to internal energy).

6. Explosions: Reverse of perfectly inelastic collisions. Internal energy (e.g., chemical, spring) is converted into kinetic energy (K_f > K_i). Momentum is conserved.

7. Center of Mass (CoM) Velocity: v⃗_cm = (Σ mᵢv⃗ᵢ) / M_total = p⃗_total / M_total. If ΣF⃗_ext = 0, then p⃗_total is constant, and therefore v⃗_cm is constant (CoM moves with constant velocity).

V. Rotational Motion

1. Angular Kinematics: Description of rotational motion.

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 ○ Angular Position (θ): Angle relative to a reference axis (radians).

○ Angular Displacement (Δθ): Change in angular position (Δθ = θf - θi).

○ Average Angular Velocity (ω_avg): ω_avg = Δθ / Δt.

○ Instantaneous Angular Velocity (ω): ω = dθ/dt. (Unit: rad/s). Direction via Right -Hand Rule (RHR).

○ Average Angular Acceleration (α_avg): α_avg = Δω / Δt.

○ Instantaneous Angular Acceleration (α): α = dω/dt = d²θ/dt². (Unit: rad/s²). Direction via RHR.

2. Relationship between Linear and Angular Quantities: For a point at radius r from the axis of rotation:

○ Arc Length: s = rθ

○ Tangential Velocity: v_t = rω (magnitude of linear velocity)

○ Tangential Acceleration: a_t = rα (component of linear acceleration changing speed)

○ Centripetal Acceleration: a_c = v_t²/r = rω² (component of linear acceleration changing direction)

○ Total Linear Acceleration: a⃗ = a⃗_t + a⃗_c (vector sum), magnitude a = √(a_t² + a_c²).

3. R tat al K emat c Equat C ta t α ONLY

○ ωf = ωi + αt

○ Δθ = ωit + ½αt² (or θf = θi + ωit + ½αt²)

○ ωf² = ωi² + 2αΔθ

4. Moment of Inertia (I): Rotational inertia; resistance to change in angular velocity. Scalar (Unit: kg⋅m²). Depends on mass and its distribution relative to the axis of rotation.

○ Point Masses: I = Σ mᵢrᵢ².

○ Continuous Objects: I = ∫ r² dm. Requires calculus or lookup tables for standard shapes (rod, disk, sphere, hoop).

○ Parallel Axis Theorem: I = I_cm + Md², where I_cm is moment of inertia about axis through CoM, M is total mass, d is distance between parallel axes.

5. Rotational Kinetic Energy: K_rot = ½Iω².

6. T que τ⃗ ): Rotational equivalent of force; causes angular acceleration. τ⃗ = r⃗ × F⃗. Magnitude τ = rFsinθ = r⊥F = rF⊥. (r⊥ = lever arm). Vector (Unit: N⋅m). Direction via RHR.

7. Newton's 2nd Law for Rotation: Net external torque equals moment of inertia times angular acceleration. Στ⃗_ext = Iα⃗.

8. Work and Power in Rotation:

○ Work: W_rot = ∫ τ dθ.

○ Work-Energy: W_net_rot = ΔK_rot = K_rot,f - K_rot,i.

○ Power: P_rot = τ⃗ ⋅ ω⃗.

9. Rolling Motion (Without Slipping): Combination of translation and rotation.

○ Constraint: v_cm = Rω, a_cm = Rα.

○ Total Kinetic Energy: K_total = K_trans + K_rot = ½Mv_cm² + ½I_cmω².

○ Role of Friction: Static friction provides the torque needed for rolling without slipping but does no work because the contact point is instantaneously at rest relative to the surface.

10. Angular Momentum (L⃗ ): Rotational equivalent of linear momentum.

○ Point Particle: L⃗ = r⃗ × p⃗ = r⃗ × (mv⃗). Magnitude L = rmvsinθ.

○ Rigid Body (about symmetry axis or fixed axis): L ⃗ = Iω⃗. Vector (Unit: kg⋅m²/s). Direction follows ω via RHR.

11. Angular Impulse and Torque:

○ Angular Impulse: J⃗_ang = ∫ τ⃗_net dt = ΔL⃗.

○ Newton's 2nd Law (Angular Momentum Form): Στ ⃗_ext = dL⃗/dt.

12. Conservation of Angular Momentum: If the net external torque on a system is zero (Στ⃗_ext = 0), the total angular momentum of the system remains constant. ΔL⃗_total = 0 => L⃗_total, initial = L⃗_total, final. I_i ω_i = I_f ω_f (if I or ω changes). Examples: spinning
skater, collapsing star, orbital motion (gravity exerts no torque about the central body).

VI. Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM)

1. Oscillation: Repetitive motion about an equilibrium position.

2. Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM): A specific type of oscillation where the restoring force is directly proportional to the displacement from equilibrium and acts opposite to the displacement. F_restore ∝ -x. Examples: Ideal mass-spring system (F = -kx), simple pendulum
for small angles (F ≈ -(mg/L)s).

3. Key Characteristics:

○ Sinusoidal motion (position, velocity, acceleration vs. time).

○ Period (T) and Frequency (f) are independent of amplitude (for ideal SHM).

4. Equations of SHM:

○ Differential Form: d²x/dt² + ω²x = 0.

○ Position: x(t) = A cos(ωt + φ).

▪ A: Amplitude (maximum displacement from equilibrium).

▪ ω: Angular Frequency (rad/s).

▪ φ: Phase Constant/Angle (determines position at t=0).

○ Velocity: v(t) = dx/dt = -Aω sin(ωt + φ). Max speed v_max = Aω (at x=0).

○ Acceleration: a(t) = dv/dt = -Aω² cos(ωt + φ) = -ω²x. Max acceleration a_max = Aω² (at x=±A).

5. e d T , F eque cy f , A gula F eque cy ω

○ ω = 2πf = 2π/T.

○ Mass-Spring: ω = √(k/m), T = 2π√(m/k).

○ Simple Pendulum (small angle): ω = √(g/L), T = 2π√(L/g).

○ Physical Pendulum: ω = √(mgD/I), T = 2π√(I/mgD) (D = distance from pivot to CoM).

○ Torsional Pendulum: ω = √(κ/I), T = 2π√(I/κ) (κ = torsional constant).

6. Energy in SHM:

○ Potential Energy (Spring): Us = ½kx² = ½kA²cos²(ωt + φ).

○ Kinetic Energy: K = ½mv² = ½m A²ω²sin²(ωt + φ) = ½kA²sin²(ωt + φ) (since k=mω²).

○ Total Mechanical Energy: ME = K + Us = ½kA². Constant for ideal SHM. Energy oscillates between K and U.

7. Damped Oscillations: SHM with a resistive force (e.g., drag). Amplitude decreases exponentially over time. Mechanical energy is dissipated.

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Formula Sheet

Kinematics (Constant Acceleration)

• vf = vi + at

• Δx = vit + ½at²

• vf² = vi² + 2aΔx

• v_avg = Δx/Δt

• a_avg = Δv/Δt

Calculus & Vectors

• v = dx/dt ; a = dv/dt = d²x/dt²

• Δx = ∫ v dt ; Δv = ∫ a dt

• Dot Product: A⃗ ⋅ B⃗ = AB cosθ = AxBx + AyBy + AzBz

• Cross Product Magnitude: |A⃗ × B⃗| = AB sinθ

Forces & Newton's Laws

• Newton's 2nd Law: ΣF⃗ = ma⃗ = dp⃗/dt

• Weight: F_g = mg

• Friction: F_sf ≤ μs F_N ; F_kf = μk F_N

• Hooke's Law: F_s = -kx

• Drag: F_D = ½ C ρ A v² or F_D = -bv

• Centripetal Acceleration: a_c = v²/r = rω²

• Centripetal Force: F_c = ma_c = mv²/r = mrω²

• Universal Gravitation: F_g = G m₁m₂ / r²

• Gravitational Field: g = GM / r²

• G = 6.67 × 10⁻¹¹ N⋅m²/kg²

Work, Energy, Power

• Work (Constant F): W = Fd cosθ = F⃗ ⋅ d⃗

• Work (Variable F): W = ∫ F⃗ ⋅ dr⃗

• Kinetic Energy: K = ½mv²

• Work-Energy Theorem: W_net = ΔK

• Potential Energy (Gravitational, near surface): Ug = mgh

• Potential Energy (Gravitational, universal): Ug = -G M m / r

• Potential Energy (Spring): Us = ½kx²

• Conservative Force Work: W_cons = -ΔU

• Force from Potential Energy: F_x = -dU/dx

• Mechanical Energy: ME = K + U

• Conservation of ME: ME_i = ME_f (if W_nc = 0)

• Work by External/NC Forces: W_ext = ΔME

• Power (Average): P_avg = W/Δt

• Power (Instantaneous): P = dW/dt = F⃗ ⋅ v⃗

Momentum & Impulse

• Linear Momentum: p⃗ = mv⃗

• Impulse: J⃗ = ∫ F⃗ dt = Δp⃗

• Conservation of Momentum: Σp⃗_i = Σp⃗_f (if ΣF⃗_ext = 0)

• Center of Mass Position: x_cm = (Σ mᵢxᵢ) / M_total

• Center of Mass Velocity: v⃗_cm = (Σ mᵢv⃗ᵢ) / M_total = p⃗_total / M_total

Rotational Motion

• Linear/Angular Relation: s = rθ, v_t = rω, a_t = rα

• Rotational Kinematics (Constant α):

○ ωf = ωi + αt

○ Δθ = ωit + ½αt²

○ ωf² = ωi² + 2αΔθ

• Moment of Inertia: I = Σ mᵢrᵢ² or I = ∫ r² dm

• Parallel Axis Theorem: I = I_cm + Md²

• Rotational Kinetic Energy: K_rot = ½Iω²

• Torque: τ⃗ = r⃗ × F⃗ ; τ = rFsinθ

• Newton's 2nd Law for Rotation: Στ⃗_ext = Iα⃗ = dL⃗/dt

• Work (Rotation): W_rot = ∫ τ dθ

• Power (Rotation): P_rot = τ⃗ ⋅ ω⃗

• Rolling w/o Slipping: v_cm = Rω, a_cm = Rα, K_total = ½Mv_cm² + ½I_cmω²

• Angular Momentum (Point Mass): L⃗ = r⃗ × p⃗ ; L = rmvsinθ

• Angular Momentum (Rigid Body): L⃗ = Iω⃗

• Conservation of Angular Momentum: ΣL⃗_i = ΣL⃗_f (if Στ⃗_ext = 0)

• Kepler's 3rd Law: T² = (4π² / GM) a³

Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM)

• Restoring Force: F ∝ -x (or τ ∝ -θ)

• Differential Equation: d²x/dt² + ω²x = 0

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 • Differential Equation: d²x/dt² + ω²x = 0

• Position: x(t) = A cos(ωt + φ)

• Velocity: v(t) = -Aω sin(ωt + φ)

• Acceleration: a(t) = -Aω² cos(ωt + φ) = -ω²x

• Angular Frequency: ω = 2πf = 2π/T

• Mass-Spring: ω = √(k/m)

• Simple Pendulum: ω = √(g/L)

• Total Energy: ME = ½kA² = ½m(v_max)²

1. What are the fundamental differences between scalar and vector quantities?
Scalar quantities are described by magnitude (a numerical value with units) alone. Examples include distance, speed, and mass . Vector quantities, however, are described by both magnitude and direction. Examples include displacement, velocity, acceler ation, and force.
When working with vectors, it is crucial to consider their direction.

2. How are vectors represented and manipulated graphically and algebraically?

Graphically, vectors are represented by arrows where the length of the arrow indicates the magnitude and the arrowhead indica tes the direction. They can be drawn using rulers and protractors. Vectors can be broken down into their horizontal (x) and v ertical (y)
components by drawing a right triangle where the vector is the hypotenuse. Algebraically, these components can be found using trigonometry (SOHCAHTOA) based on the vector's magnitude and angle relative to an axis. Unit vectors (i, j, k with hats) with a magnitude of 1
are used to indicate direction along the x, y, and z axes, respectively, and are scaled by scalar multipliers for proper leng th. Vectors in component form can be added or subtracted by simply adding or subtracting their corresponding components.

3. What are displacement, velocity, and acceleration, and how do they differ from distance, speed, and deceleration?
Displacement is the change in an object's position and is a vector quantity, having both magnitude and direction. Distance is the total length traveled and is a scalar quantity. Velocity is the rate of change of displacement with respect to time and i s a vector. Speed is the rate
of change of distance with respect to time and is a scalar. Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity and is also a vect or. "Decelerate" is a term to avoid because it can refer to either positive or negative acceleration depending on the directi on of motion, making it
potentially misleading.

4. How are graphs and calculus used to describe and analyze motion?
Velocity-time (v-t) graphs can be used to determine displacement (the area under the curve). The slope of a position-time (x-t) graph represents velocity, and the slope of a v-t graph represents acceleration. Instantaneous velocity and acceleration, representing the rate of
change at a specific moment, can be found using derivatives (taking the slope at an infinitesimally small time interval). The power rule of differentiation is a key tool for finding these derivatives from position functions. Conversely, displacement a nd velocity can be
determined from acceleration and velocity functions using definite integrals.

5. What are the key principles for analyzing projectile motion?

Projectile motion is analyzed by considering the horizontal and vertical components of motion independently, as they only sha re time. Assuming negligible air resistance, the horizontal component has constant velocity (zero acceleration), while the ve rtical component
experiences constant acceleration due to gravity (g = 9.81 m/s² downward near Earth's surface). When solving projectile probl ems, it is crucial to establish a consistent coordinate system (e.g., up as positive) and choose an origin. Kinematic equatio ns are applied separately
to the x and y directions to solve for unknowns like range, maximum height, and time of flight.

6. What is a reference frame, and how does it affect the description of motion?
A reference frame is a point of view from which motion is measured. All motion is relative to a chosen reference frame, and t here is no absolute frame of reference. Observers in different inertial reference frames (frames moving at a constant velocit y relative to each other)
will describe the same motion differently. It is essential to define the reference frame when analyzing motion.

7. How do Newton's Laws of Motion apply to scenarios involving various forces, including gravity, friction, and springs?
Newton's Second Law (ΣF = ma) is fundamental to analyzing motion under the influence of forces. Gravitational force between two masses is given by F = G(m₁m₂)/r², and near the Earth's surface, it simplifies to weight, F_g = mg. Friction opposes motion between surfaces;
static friction prevents motion from starting (up to a maximum value), while kinetic friction acts on moving objects. Spring force is described by Hooke's Law, F = -kx, where k is the spring constant and x is the displacement from equilibrium. When applying Newton's Laws,
it's crucial to draw free-body diagrams, resolve forces into components, and apply ΣF = ma in each direction.

8. What are the concepts of work, energy (kinetic and potential), and the principles of conservation of energy and momentum?
Work is done by a force acting over a distance (W = F⋅d). Kinetic energy (K = ½mv²) is the energy of motion, and potential energy (e.g., gravitational U_g = mgh, spring U_s = ½kx² ) is stored energy due to position or configuration. The work-energy theorem states that the net
work done on an object equals its change in kinetic energy. The principle of conservation of mechanical energy states that in a closed system where only conservative forces (like gravity and spring forces) do work, the total mechanical energy (K + U) remains constant.
Momentum (p = mv) is a measure of an object's mass in motion. Impulse (J = Δp = FΔt) is the change in momentum. The principle of conservation of linear momentum states that in a closed system with no external forces, the total momentum remains constan t. Similar
principles apply to rotational motion, involving torque, angular velocity, moment of inertia, rotational kinetic energy, and angular momentum.

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