3 Lines, Parabolas, and Systems

3.1 Lines
In many applications, the relationship between quantities can be expressed by a straight line.

3.1.1 Slope of a Line

A linear function can be written in the form f (x) = mx + b. The graph of a linear function is a straight line with a constant
rise or fall, namely slope. The slope of a line is the ratio of the change in y between two points to the change in x between
the same two points. The slope m of the line passing through the points P1 (x1 , y1 ) and P2 (x2 , y2 ) with x1 ̸= x2 is given by

△y y2 − y1
m= =
△x x 2 − x1

3.1.2 Slope–intercept Form

The graph of f (x) = mx + b is a line with slope m and y-intercept (0, b).

2
Example 3.1. The graph of f (x) = x − 4 is a line.
3
2
• The slope of the line is
3
• The y-intercept is (0, −4)

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Linear equation in general form

An equation of the form Ax + By = C, where A, B, and C are real numbers and both A and B are not zero, is called the
general form of a linear equation in two variables.

Example 3.2. Given an equation in standard form 3x + 2y = 4, graph using x-intercept and y-intercept.

3.1.3 Point-Slope Form

The graph of
y − y1 = m(x − x1 )

is a line that has slope m and passes through (x1 , y1 ).

Example 3.3. Find the equation of the line that passes through P1 (−2, 4) and P2 (2, −1).

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3.1.4 Parallel and perpendicular lines

Parallel Lines

Two nonintersecting lines in a plane are parallel. Given line l1 be the graph of f1 (x) = m1 x + b1 and l2 be the graph of
f2 (x) = m2 x + b2 then l1 and l2 are parallel if and only if m1 = m2 .

Perpendicular Lines

Two lines are perpendicular if and only if they intersect and form 90◦ adjacent angles. Given line l1 be the graph of
1
f1 (x) = m1 x + b1 and l2 be the graph of f2 (x) = m2 x + b2 then l1 and l2 are perpendicular if and only if m1 = − .
m2

1
Example 3.4. Given lines l1 and l2 be graph of g1 (x) = 2x + 3 and g2 (x) = − x + 1 respectively, then l1 and l2 are
2
1 1
perpendicular because m1 = 2 and m2 = − =− .
m1 2

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3.2 Application of linear Function

Remark 3.5. A polynomial of degree 1 is of the form f (x) = mx + b is called a linear function.

3.2.1 Demand and Supply Curves

Demand Equation and Curve

Given a price level of a product, there is a corresponding quantity that consumers will demand (purchase) during some time
period.

• the higher the price, the smaller quantity is demanded.

• as price falls, the quantity demanded increases.

Definition 3.6. Let price per unit of the product is given by p and the corresponding quantity (in units) is given by q, the
equation relating p and q is called a demand equation and its graph is called the demand curve.

Supply Equation and Curve

In response to various prices, there is a corresponding quantity that producers are willing to supply to the market during
some time period.

• the higher the price, the larger is the quantity can be supplied

• as price falls, the quantity supplied decreases.

Definition 3.7. Let price per unit of the product is given by p and the corresponding quantity (in units) is given by q, the
equation relating p and q is called a supply equation and its graph is called the supply curve.

Exercise 3.8. Suppose the demand per week for a product is 100 units when the price is $58 per unit and 200 units at $51
each. Determine the demand equation, assuming is linear.

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3.3 Quadratic Functions
A polynomial of degree two is also called a quadratic function. Quadratic functions are of form y = ax2 + bx + c.

3.3.1 Parabola

The graph of quadratic function y = ax2 + bx + c , (a ̸= 0) is a parabola.

• The graph opens up if a > 0

• The graph opens down if a < 0

Vertex of a parabola

The vertex of a parabola is

• the lowest point on a parabola that opens up (a > 0); or

• the highest point on a parabola that opens down (a < 0).

Axis of Symmetry

The graph of a parabola has an axis of symmetry. The axis of symmetry is a vertical line through the vertex such that if the
parabola were folded along that line, the two parts of the graph would match up.

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Standard Form of a Quadratic Function

Vertex Formula

Example 3.9. Given

f (x) = 2x2 − 8x + 3

1. use the vertex formula to find the vertex.

2. find the standard form.

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3.4 Systems of Linear Equations
3.4.1 Linear equation in two variables

The equation of form Ax + By = C is a linear equation in two variables. Example: 5x − 2y = −14

A solution of a linear equation in two variables

A solution of a linear equation in two variables is an ordered pair (x, y) that makes the equation a true statement.

Three types of solution in two variables

Solution of linear system of two equations of two variables is one of the following cases.
• The graphs intersect at a single point. (consistent: one solution)

• The graphs are parallel lines (inconsistent: no solution)

• The graphs are the same line. (consistent: infinitely many solutions)

Substitution Method for Solving a System of Equations

The substitution method is a procedure for solving a system of equations. This method is illustrated below.

Example 3.10. Solve the following system using substitution method.

⎧
⎨3x − 5y = 7 (1)
⎩ y = 2x (2)

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Example 3.11. Solve. ⎧
⎨x + 3y =6 (1)
⎩2x + 6y = −18 (2)

Example 3.12. Solve. ⎧

⎨8x − 4y = 16 (1)
⎩2x − y =4 (2)

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Elimination Method for Solving a System of Equations

A second technique for solving a system of equations is that the system of equations is replaced by a series of equivalent
systems until the solution is apparent.

Producing Equivalent Systems of Equations

1. Interchange any two equations. This does not affect its solution. Example: e1 ↔ e2

2. Replace an equation with a nonzero constant multiple of that equation. Example: (−3)e1 → e1

3. Replace an equation with the sum of that equation and a nonzero constant multiple of another equation in the system.
Example: 2e1 + e2 → e2

Example 3.13. Solve. ⎧

⎨3x − 4y = 10 (1)
⎩2x + 5y = −1 (2)

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3.4.2 Systems of Linear equations in three Variables

Linear equation in three variables

Given A, B and C not all zero, the equation of form Ax + By + Cz = D is a linear equation in three variables. Example:
2x − 3y + z = 4

A solution of a linear equation in three variables

A solution of a linear equation in three variables is an ordered triple (x, y, z) that makes the equation a true statement.

Substitution method

A system of equations in more than two variables can be solved by using the substitution method.

Example 3.14. Solve ⎧

⎪
⎪ x − 2y + z =7
⎪
⎨ (1)
2x + y − z =0 (2)
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎩3x + 2y − 2z (3)
= −2

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One-Parameter Family of Solutions

Example 3.15. Solve ⎧

⎪
⎪ x − 2y =4
⎪
⎨ (1)
2x − 3y + 2z = −2 (2)
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎩4x − 7y + 2z (3)
=6

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Two-Parameter Family of Solutions

Example 3.16. Solve ⎧

⎨x + 2y + z =4 (1)
⎩2x + 4y + 2z =8 (2)

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3.5 Nonlinear Systems (not covered)
A system of equations with at least one equation is not linear is called a nonlinear system.

3.6 Applications of System of Equations

3.6.1 Equilibrium

In supply–demand problems, businesses are willing to supply a product at a certain price, and there is consumer demand
for the product at that price. This price referred to as the equilibrium price. To find the equilibrium point, a system of
equations is created,

• One equation is the supply model of the business.

• The other equation is the demand model of the consumer.

Example 3.17. Suppose that the supply and demand equations for printed t-shirts for a particular week are

1
p= − q + 12 demand equation
180
1
p= q+8 supply equation
300

where p is the price in dollars and q is the quantity in hundreds. Find Equilibrium price and quantity.

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An Application in Economy

3.6.2 Revenue, Cost and Profit Function, Break-Even Point

Given a manufacturer produces x units of a product that sells for p dollars per unit, define

• the cost function C as: C(x) = cost of producing and selling x units

• the revenue function R as: R(x) = revenue from the sale of x units at p dollars each

• the profit function P as: P (x) = profit from selling x units. The profit function is given by

P (x) = R(x) − C(x)

• the value of x for which R(x) = C(x) is called the break-even point. Equivalently, at the break-even point P (x) = 0 .

Application of Quadratic Function

Example 3.18. In a monopoly market the total cost (per week) of producing a product is given by

C(x) = 2x2 + 100x + 3600

The weekly demand for this product is given by

D(x) = p = 500 − 2x

1. Write the revenue function for this product.

2. Find the number of units that will give the break even point for this product.

3. Find the vertex of the revenue function and determine maximum or minimum revenue.

4. What is the maximum revenue?

5. Evaluate: C(125).

6. Find the number of units that maximizes the profit.

7. What is the maximum profit?

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