Maharaja Institute of Technology Mysore Department of Civil Engineering

Module-2: Theodolite Survey and Instrument Adjustment

Theodolite
The system of surveying in which the angles are measured with the help of a theodolite is
called Theodolite surveying.
A theodolite is a precision optical instrument for measuring angles between designated
visible points in the horizontal and vertical planes. The traditional use has been for land
surveying, but they are also used extensively for building and infrastructure construction, and
some specialized applications such as meteorology and rocket launching.
It consists of a moveable telescope mounted so it can rotate around horizontal and
vertical axes and provide angular readouts. These indicate the orientation of the telescope, and
are used to relate the first point sighted through the telescope to subsequent sightings of other
points from the same theodolite position. These angles can be measured with great accuracy,
typically to mili-radian or seconds of arc. From these readings a plan can be drawn, or objects
can be positioned in accordance with an existing plan. The modern theodolite has evolved into
what is known as a total station where angles and distances are measured electronically, and
are read directly to computer memory.

Types of Theodolite
Theodolites are broadly classified as,
a) Transit
b) Non-transit
• Transit theodolite: A theodolite in which if the telescope can be revolved through a
complete resolute about its horizontal axis in the vertical plane is called as a transit
theodolite.
• Non transit theodolite: These theodolites are plain or ‘Y’ theodolites, in which the telescope
cannot be transited or vertical rotation of the telescope is restricted to a limited arc.

Based on the system used to observe the reading, Theodolites are also classified as,
a) Vernier theodolites
b) Micrometer theodolites
• Vernier theodolite: verniers are used to measure accurately the horizontal and vertical
angles. A 20” vernier theodolite is usually used.
• Micrometer theodolite: An optical system or a micrometer is used to read the angles in this
case. The precision can be as high as 1”.
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Fundamental Axes of transit theodolite

The fundamental Axes are:

1) Vertical axis
2) Horizontal axis
3) Line of collimation (line of sight)
4) Axis of plate level
5) Axis of altitude level
6) Axis of striding level, if provided

1. The vertical axis: It is the axis about which the instrument can be rotated in a horizontal
plane.
2. The horizontal axis: It is the axis about which the telescope can be rotated in the vertical
plane. It is also called the trunnion axis.
3. Line of sight or line of collimation: It is the imaginary line passing through the intersection
of the cross hairs (vertical and horizontal) and the optical center of the object glass and its
continuation.
4. Axis of plate level: It is also called as bubble line; it is the straight tangential line to the
longitudinal curve of the level tube at its centre.
5. Axis of the altitude level: It is the axis of the level tube in altitude spirit level.
6. Striding level: It is used for testing the horizontality of the transit axis or trunnion axis.

Parts of transit theodolite

1. Telescope: The telescope of the theodolite is mounted on a spindle known as ‘Trunnion
axis’. In most of the transit theodolite an internal focusing telescope is used. It consists of object
glass, a diaphragm and an eye-piece. The main function of the telescope is to provide line of
sight.
2. The vertical circle: The vertical circle is rigidly connected to the transverse axis of the
telescope and moves as the telescope is raised or depressed. It is graduated in degrees with
graduations at 20°. Graduation in each quadrant is numbered from 0° to 90° in the opposite
directions from the two zeros placed at the horizontal diameter of thecircle.
3. The index frame or T-frame or Vernier frame: It consists of a vertical portion called
dipping arm and a horizontal portion called an index arm. The two verniers of the vertical circle
are fixed to the two ends of the index arm. The index arm can be rotated slightly for adjustment
purpose, with the help of clip screw.
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4. The standard or A-Frame: Two standards resembling letter ‘A’ are mounted on the
upper plates. The trunnion axis of the telescope is supported on these. The T-Frame and the arm
of vertical circle clamp are also attached to A-Frame.
5. Levelling head: It consists of two parts namely,
a) Tribrach is the upper triangular plate which carries three levelling screws at three
ends of the triangle.
b) Trivet or the lower plate (foot plate) has three grooves to accommodate three
levelling screws.
The leveling head has three main functions namely,
a) To support the main part of the instrument
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b) To attach the theodolite to the tripod

c) To provide a means for levelling
6. The two spindles: Inner spindle is conical and fits into the outer spindle which is hollow.
Inner spindle is also called upper axis and outer spindle is called lower axis.
7. The lower plate (scale plate): It carries the circular scale which is graduated from 0° to
360°. It is attached to the outer spindle which turns in a bearing within the tribrach of the
levelling head. It is fixed using lower clamping screw; lower tangent screw enable slow motion
of the outer spindle.
8. The Upper plate (vernier plate): It is attached to the inner axis and carries two verniers
with magnifiers at two extremities diametrically opposite. Upper clamping screw and a
corresponding tangent screw are used for moving upper plate.
9. The plate levels: The upper plate carries one or two plate levels which can be centered
with the help of foot screws.
10. Accessories:
a) Tripod with three solid legs
b) Plumb bob : for centering
c) Compass : tubular or trough
d) Striding level for testing the horizontality of the transit axis or trunnion axis.

Uses of Theodolite
The Theodolite is a most accurate surveying instrument mainly used for:
a) Measuring horizontal and vertical angles
b) Locating points on a line
c) Prolonging survey lines
d) Finding difference of level
e) Setting out grades
f) Ranging curves
g) Tacheometric Survey

Definitions and Terms

1. Centering: Setting the theodolite exactly over an instrument station so that its vertical axis
lies immediately above the station point is called centering.
2. Transiting: It is the process of turning the telescope vertical plane through 180° about the
trunnion axis. This process is also known as plunging or reversing.
3. Swinging the telescope: It is the process of turning the telescope in horizontal plane. If the
telescope is rotated in clock wise direction, it is known as right swing and other wise left
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swing.
4. Face right observation: If the vertical circle is to the left of the observer, then the
observation is called as face left.
5. Face right observation: If vertical circle is to the right of the observer, then the observation
called as face right.
6. Telescope normal and telescope inverted: If the telescope is in such a way that the face is
left and bubble is up, then it is said to be in normal position or direct. If the face is right and
bubble is down then the telescope is said to be in inverted position or reversed position.
Vertical circle to the right of the observer, if originally to the left and vice versa. It is done by
first revolving the telescope through 180° in a vertical plane and then rotating it through
180° in the horizontal plane, i.e. first transiting and then swinging the telescope.

Temporary adjustments of a transit theodolite

The temporary adjustment of a transit theodolite is done by the following three
important operations:
1. Setting up: The instrument have to be set up properly on the station point. The tripod
stand should be approximately levelled before fixing the instrument. This is achieved by moving
the legs of the tripod. There is a small spirit level on the tripod head for the leveling of tripod.
Centering of the instrument over the station mark is achieved by a plumb bob or by using
optical plummet.
2. Leveling up: After centering and approximate leveling, accurate leveling is to be carried
out with the help of the foot screws and using the plate level tube. In this step the vertical axis of
the instrument is made truly vertical. Leveling the instrument depends on the number of foot
screws available. For a screw head, the procedure for leveling is as follows:
a) Turn the upper plate until the longitudinal axis of the plate level is parallel to the line
joining any two foot screws (let it be A and B)
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b) Hold the two foot screws A and B between the thumb and the forefingers of each hand and
turn them uniformly so that the thumb move either towards each other or away from each
other until the bubble is central. Bubble moves in the direction of the left foot screw.
c) Turn the upper plate through 90° until the axis of the level passes over the position of the
third leveling screw C.
d) Turn this levelling screw until the bubble is central
e) Return the upper plate to original position (fig1) and repeat step(b)
f) Turn back and repeat step (c)
g) Repeat steps (e) and (f) for two to three times until the bubble is central.
h) Now rotate the instrument through 180° and check whether the bubble is in thecentre.

3. Elimination of Parallax: Parallax is a condition in which the image formed does not lie
on the plane of the cross hair; this can be eliminated by focusing the eye-piece and the objective.
For focusing the eye-piece, hold a white paper in front of the objective and move eye-piece in or
out until the cross-hairs are distinctly visible. Objective lens is focused by rotating the focusing
screw until the image appears clear and sharp.

Measurement of Horizontal Angles

Theodolites are majorly used to measure horizontal and vertical angles. Horizontal
angles are usually, measured by any of these methods.
a) Ordinary method
b) Method of repetition
c) Method of reiteration

a) Ordinary Method
To measure an angle POQ, the following procedure is used:
1. Set up the instrument at ‘O’, Set it up, level it accurately and
perform the temporary adjustments.
2. Release the upper clamp screw and lower clamp screw. Turn the upper and lower plates
such that the vernier A reads zero and the vernier circle is to the left of the observer. Clamp
both the plates and bring the vernier A to zero to coincide with the main scale zero using
the upper tangent screw. Check the reading on vernier B, it should read 180°.
3. Loosen the lower clamp and rotate the telescope to view point P. Clamp lower plate and
using lower tangent screw sight P exactly. Check the readings on both the verniers to see
that it had not changed.
4. Unclamp the upper clamp and rotate the instrument clock-wise until point Q is bisected,
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tighten the clamp and using upper tangent screw bisect Q accurately.
5. Reading is observed from verniers A and B. Reading of vernier A gives angle POQ and B
vernier gives 180°+POQ
6. Read degrees, minutes and seconds from the vernier scale by observing which line on the
vernier scale is having correct coincidence with the reading in the main scale. In a 20”
transit theodolite, the least count is 20” or the minimum reading which can be measured
from the scale is 20”. The reading coinciding with the vernier-zero is considered to be the
main scale reading. If there is no exact coincidence for the vernier zero line, then the
reading to the immediate left of the vernier scale, on the main scale should be considered.
This reading should be added with the vernier reading for the total value.
Example: At vernier A, Reading on main scale = 128° 40’, Reading on vernier scale = 3’ 0”,
Thentotalreading=128°40’+3’0” = 128°43’0”
At vernier B scale, the degree reading is not required, whereas the minutes reading from
the main scale is noted and added with vernier reading and this will give the B scale
reading.
7. Enter the readings in a field book in the following tabular format,

8. Change the face by transiting and swinging and repeat the same process.
9. The mean of the two vernier readings gives the angle on faceright.
10. Average horizontal angle is calculated from the mean horizontal angle of face left and face
right values.

b) Repetition Method
This method is used for very accurate work. In this method, the same angle is added
several times mechanically and the total angle is divided by no of repetitions to obtain the
correct value of angle. To measure an angle POQ by the method of repetition, the following
procedure is adopted:
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1. Setup theinstrument at ‘O’ and level it.

2. Loosen the upper clamp and turn the upper plate until the index of vernier ‘A’ nearly coincide
withthe horizontalcircle. Now tight the upper clamp.
3. Turn the upper tangent screw so as to make the two zeros exactly coincide. So that ‘A’ vernier
reads 0° and ‘B’ vernierreads 180°.
4. Sight station ‘P’, tighten the lower clamp and bisect station ‘P’ exactly by using the lower tangent
screw.
5. Unclamp the upper clamp and swing the telescope, bisect station ‘Q’ by using the upper clamp
and upper tangentscrew.
6. Read boththe verniers take averageto get angle POQ.
7. Unclamp the lower clamp and swing the telescope and bisect station ‘P’ accurately by using the
lower clamp and lower tangentscrew.
8. Read both the verniers check the vernier reading it should be the same (unchanged) as that
obtained in step 6.
9. Release the upper plate using upper clamp and bisect station ‘Q’ accurately using upper tangent
screw. The vernier willread twicethe angle POQ
10. Repeat the procedure for required number of times say three times and find out the value of
angle POQ.
11. Change face and make three more repetitions as described above. Find the average angle with
faceright by dividing thefinal reading by the number of repetitions.
Tabular Column:
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12. The average Horizontal angle is then obtained by taking the average of the two angles obtained
with face left and faceright.
For high precision surveys, repetition method can be conducted in two ways:
a) The angle is measured respectively for six times, keeping the telescope normal (face left)
and then calculating the average.
b) In another way, angle is measured clockwise, with face left for first three observations
then, in anticlockwise direction, three face right observations are taken.

Elimination of errors by method of repetition

The following errors are eliminated by adopting method of repetition
a) Errors due to eccentricity of verniers and centers by measuring both vernier readings.
b) Errors due to line of collimation not being perpendicular to the horizontal axis of the
telescope.
c) Errors due to horizontal axis of telescope not being perpendicular to the vertical axis.
d) Error due to the line of collimation not coinciding with the axis of the telescope. These three
errors can be eliminated by changing the face of the theodolite.
e) Errors due to inaccurate graduations can be eliminated by taking both vernierreadings.
f) Error due to inaccurate bisection of the object can be eliminated by taking repeated
readings.
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Reiteration Method
This method is also known as direction method or method of series. Several angles are
measured successively and finally the horizon is closed.
To measure a series of angles AOB, BOC, COD etc by reiteration,
this procedure is followed:
1. Set up the instrument at ‘O’ and level it.
2. Set the vernier ‘A’ to read zero using upper clamp and upper
tangent screw.
3. Direct the telescope towards point ‘B’ and bisect it exactly
using the lower clamp and lower tangent screw. Read both vernier ‘A’ & ‘B’ and take mean
value.
4. Similarly Loosen the upper clamp and bisect the successive points C, D etc using upper
tangent screw and keep on observing the readings. Each included angle is obtained by
taking the difference of two consecutivereadings. Angle BOC = angle AOC – angle AOB
5. Finally close the horizon by sighting point A. The reading in the vernier should be zero (or
360°). If not, note down the reading and distribute it evenly to allangles.
6. Repeat the same steps in other face.
7. The sets of reading are usually taken first in clockwise direction and then after changing the
face in anticlockwise direction.
8. Final average horizontal angles are calculated from the mean horizontal angles of face left
and face right values.

Tabular Column:
Maharaja Institute of Technology Mysore Department of Civil Engineering

MEASUREMENT OF VERTICAL ANGLES

A vertical angle is an angle between the inclined line of sight and horizontal. The
instrument has to be leveled with respect to the altitude bubble for measuring vertical angles.
1. Level the instrument with reference to plate level
2. Keep the altitude bubble tube parallel to 2 foot screws and bring the bubble central. Rotate
telescope 90° and adjust the bubble using the 3rd foot screw. Repeat the procedure till the
bubble is central.
3. Loosen the vertical clamp screw; rotate the telescope in vertical plane to sight the object, use
tangent screw for correct bisections.
4. Read vernier C and D. Average gives correct vertical angle.
5. Change the face and continue the procedure.
6. Final average vertical angle is calculated from the mean vertical angles of face left and face
right values.
If the vertical angle is measured above the horizontal line, it is called angle of elevation
and if the vertical angle is measured below the horizontal line, it is angle of depression.

Tabular Column:

Permanent Adjustment of Transit Theodolite

The permanent adjustments are made to establish the relationship between the
fundamental lines of the theodolite and, once made; they last for a long time. They are essential
for the accuracy of observations.
The permanent adjustments in case of transit theodolites are as follows:
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a) Adjustment of Horizontal Plate Levels: The axis of the plate levels must be perpendicular to
the vertical axis.
b) Adjustment of line of Collimation Adjustment: The line of collimation should coincide with
the axis of the telescope and the axis of the objective slide and should be at right angles to
the horizontal axis.
c) Adjustment of Horizontal axis: The horizontal axis must be perpendicular to the vertical
axis.
d) Adjustment of Telescope Level or the Altitude Level: The axis of the telescope levels or the
altitude level must be parallel to the line of collimation.
e) Adjustment of Vertical Circle Index: The vertical circle vernier must read zero when the line
of collimation is horizontal.

For making the adjustments, the instrument should be set up at a fairly level ground
where sights of about 100 m can be taken in either direction in the same straight line. Each
adjustment involves two steps:
i. A test to determine the error, and
ii. An adjustment of this error
Since certain adjustments upset other adjustments, the adjustments must be made in the order
given below:
1) First Adjustment: To make the axis of the plate levels perpendicular to the vertical axis
a) Objective: When this adjustment is made, all the bubbles will remain in the centre of their
run during a complete revolution of the instrument.
b) Necessity: It is important in the measurement of horizontal and vertical angle. The vertical
axis should be truly vertical. It may be noted that the error due to vertical axis not being truly
vertical cannot be eliminated by taking face left and face right observations.
c) Test: The adjustment involves making the vertical axis vertical and then making the level on
the upper plate perpendicular to the vertical axis.
i. Set up the instrument on firm ground, clamp the lower motion and turn the upper plate
until the longer plate-level is parallel to any pair of foot screws. Bring each plate level to
the centre of its run by means of foot screws as explained in temporary adjustment of a
theodolite.
ii. Rotate the instrument about the vertical axis through 180°. The plate level is again
parallel to the pair of foot-screws, but with the ends reversed in direction. If the bubble
remains central, the axes of the plate levels are perpendicular to the vertical axis and the
vertical axis-is truly vertical.
d) Adjustment:
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i. If not, note down the deviation of the bubble (say, n divisions), which is the apparent
error and is twice the actual error in the axis of the level and, therefore the correction is
half the amount of this error.
ii. Bring each bubble half way (n/2 divisions) back by means of the respective foot-screw
and remaining half way back by means of the captain-headed nuts provided at the end of
the tube.
iii. Repeat the test and adjustment until both the bubbles remain central during the whole
revolution of the instrument.

2) Second Adjustment: To make the line of collimation coincide with the axis of the telescope,
and to make it at right angles to the horizontal axis. This adjustment is made in two steps:
(i) Adjustment of the horizontal hair, and
(ii) Adjustment of the vertical hair
First Step: Adjustment of the Horizontal Hair
a) Objective: The objective of this adjustment is to bring the horizontal hair, into the horizontal
plane through the optical axis.
b) Necessity: The movement of the object-glass is assumed to be along the optical axis. If this
adjustment does not exist, the direction of the line of sight will change when the objective is
moved in and out for focusing. This adjustment is necessary when the instrument is used for
measuring vertical angles or when it is used for levelling operations. It has no effect in the
measurement of horizontal angles.
c) Test:
i. Set up the theodolite at a convenient point and level it.
ii. With the face of the instrument left, take a reading on the staff held on peg B driven at a
distance of about 100 m from the instrument station (O). Let the staff reading be b1. Also
note the vertical angle (α).
iii. Change the face of the instrument. Set the vertical vernier to the former angle (α) and
again take a reading on B. If the reading is equal to the previous reading b1, no adjustment
is necessary.
d) Adjustment:
i. If not, note the second staff reading. Let it be b2.
ii. Move the horizontal hair by means of the vertical diaphragm screws until the mean ‘b’ of
the two readings b1 and b2 isobtained.

Second Step: Adjustment of the Vertical Hair

a) Objective: The objective of this adjustment is to make the line of collimation perpendicular to
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the horizontal axis.

b) Necessity: If this adjustment exists, the line of collimation will generate a plane when the
telescope is transited. But if not, it will generate a cone with the horizontal axis as its axis.
The adjustment is necessary for prolonging straight lines and for measuring horizontal
angles between points at different elevations.
c) Test:
i. Set up the theodolite at a convenient point O on a fairly level ground and level it. Fix a peg
at a point A at a distance of about 100 m from O. Bisect A and clamp the lower and upper
screws.
ii. Now transit the telescope and mark a point B in the line of sight at about 100 m from O
and at about the same level as A.
iii. Unclamp the upper screw, swing the telescope through 180°, and again bisect A. Then
clamp the upper screw.
iv. Transit the telescope again. If now the point B is again bisected by the cross-hairs, the
adjustment is correct.
d) Adjustment:
i. If the point B is now not on the line of sight, mark a point C in the line of sight opposite B.
The apparent error BC is four times the real error, since the telescope is transited twice.
ii. Mark a point D at one fourth distance from C to B (CD = 1/2CB).
iii. Move the diagram by means of the horizontal diagram screws until the vertical hair is on
the point D.
iv. Repeat the process until the adjustment is correct.

3) Third Adjustment: To make the horizontal axis perpendicular to the vertical axis
a) Objective: The objective of this adjustment is to ensure that the line of sight revolves in a
vertical plane perpendicular to the horizontal axis.
b) Necessity: The adjustment is necessary for prolonging straight lines and for measuring
horizontal angles. This condition can be established by the Spire Test as follows:
c) Test:
i. Set up the instrument near a spire or some other elevated object. Let P be the top point.
ii. Sight the point P, and with both horizontal motions clamped, depress the telescope and
mark a point A in the line of sight near the base of theobject.
iii. Change the face of the instrument, and again sight on the point P. Depress the telescope. If
the line of sight now strikes the point A marked previously, the adjustment is correct.
d) Adjustment:
i. If not, mark another point B in the line of sight near the base of the same object. Mark
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another point C midway between A and B.

ii. Sight on point C and clamp the upper motion. Raise the telescope. The line of sight will not
now strike the point P. Raise or lower the adjustable end of the horizontal axis by means
of the screws near the top of the A-frame until the line of sight passesthrough the point P.
iii. Repeat the test for adjustment until perfect.

4) Fourth Adjustment: To make the axis of the telescope level or altitude level parallel to the
line of collimation
a) Objective: The objective of this adjustment is that the line of collimation should remain
horizontal when the telescope level is brought in the centre.
b) Necessity: The adjustment is essential when the vertical angles are to be measured and the
instrument is to be used as a level.
c) Test: The procedure of testing the theodolite for this adjustment is the same as in the ‘two
peg’ method of dumpy level.
i. Fix two pegs A and B on a fairly level ground about 100m apart. Set up the theodolite at O
exactly midway between A and B. Clamp the vertical circle and the telescope level in the
centre of its mm by means of the tangent screw of the vertical circle.
ii. With the bubble central, take readings on staff held on A and B and find the difference
between these readings, which is the true difference of level between A and B.
iii. Shift the instrument and set it up at O1 on the line BA produced, at about 20 m from A.
iv. With the bubble central, read the staff first on A and then on B and find the difference
between the two readings. If this difference is equal to the first difference, the adjustment
is correct.

d) Adjustment:
i. If not, calculate the correct staff readings on A and B as explained in the ‘two-peg’
adjustment of the dumpy level.
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ii. Bring the horizontal hair exactly to the correct reading on B by means of the tangent
screw of the vertical circle. The bubble is thus disturbed.
iii. Bring the bubble exactly to the centre of its run be means of the level tube nuts.
iv. Sight the staff on the near peg and note whether the calculated correct reading is
obtained.
v. Repeat the process until the adjustment is correct.

5) Fifth Adjustment: To make the vertical circle read zero when the line of collimation is
horizontal i.e. the telescope bubble is centered.
a) Objective: The objective of this adjustment is that the vertical circle should read zero when
the line of collimation is horizontal.
b) Necessity: This adjustment made for convenience only. If the index error i.e. the reading on
the vertical circle when the telescope bubble is in the centre is noted and the corresponding
correction applied to the observed reading, no error will be introduced. But still this
adjustment is preferred while reading vertical angles and prolonging straight lines.
c) Test:
i. Set up the theodolite at firm ground.
ii. Centre the plate bubbles and then bring the telescope bubble exactly to the centre of its
run by means of the vertical tangent screw as in the first adjustment, and read the vernier
of the vertical circle. If it reads zero, then this adjustment of the instrument is correct.
d) Adjustment:
If the vernier does not read zero, loosen it and move it by means of adjusting screw which
holds it to the standard until it reads zero.

Trigonometric Leveling
Trigonometric Leveling is the branch of Surveying in which we find out the vertical
distance between two points by taking the vertical angular observations and the known
distances. The known distances are either assumed to be horizontal or the geodetic lengths at
the mean sea level (MSL). The distances are measured directly (as in the plane surveying) or
they are computed as in the geodetic surveying.

Trigonometric leveling is an indirect method of leveling in which the difference in

elevation is measured using vertical angles, with the help of a transit theodolite. Distances are
either measured or computed using trigonometric calculations. Thus this method is also called
as a method of heights and distances. There are various cases in trigonometric leveling: