Module 1

COMPUTER NETWORKS AND THE INTERNET

Introduction: 1-1
Introduction
Chapter goal: Overview/roadmap:
 Get “feel,” “big picture,”  What is the Internet? What is a
introduction to terminology protocol?
• more depth, detail later  Network edge: hosts, access
network, physical media
in course
 Network core: packet/circuit
switching, internet structure
 Performance: loss, delay,
throughput
 Protocol layers, service models
 Security
 History

Introduction: 1-2
The Internet: a “nuts and bolts” view
Billions of connected mobile network
computing devices: national or global ISP
 hosts = end systems
 running network apps at
Internet’s “edge”

Packet switches: forward

packets (chunks of data) local or
Internet
regional
ISP
 routers, switches
home network content
Communication links provider
network datacenter
 fiber, copper, radio, satellite network

 transmission rate:
bandwidth
Networks enterprise
 collection of devices, routers, network
links: managed by an
organization Introduction: 1-3
 “Fun” Internet-connected devices
Tweet-a-watt:
monitor energy use

bikes

Pacemaker & Monitor

Amazon Echo Web-enabled toaster +

IP picture frame
weather forecaster
Internet
refrigerator
Slingbox: remote cars
control cable TV
Security Camera
AR devices
sensorized, scooters
bed
Fitbit
Others?
mattress

Gaming devices
Internet phones diapers
Introduction: 1-4
The Internet: a “nuts and bolts” view
mobile network
4G
 Internet: “network of networks” national or global ISP

• Interconnected ISPs
 protocols are everywhere Skype
IP
Streaming
video
• control sending, receiving of
messages local or
regional
• e.g., HTTP (Web), streaming ISP
video, Zoom, TCP, IP, WiFi, 4/5G, home network content
Ethernet provider
HTTP network
Internet standards
datacenter
 network
Ethernet
• RFC: Request for Comments
TCP
• IETF: Internet Engineering Task enterprise
Force network

WiFi
Introduction: 1-5
What’s a protocol?
Human protocols: Network protocols:
 “what’s the time?”  computers (devices) rather than
 “I have a question” humans
 introductions  all communication activity in Internet
governed by protocols

Rules for: Protocols define the format, order

… specific messages of messages sent and received
sent
among network entities, and
… specific actions taken
when message actions taken on message
received, or other transmission, receipt
events
Introduction: 1-6
What’s a protocol?
A human protocol and a computer network
protocol:
Hi TCP connection
request
Hi TCP connection
response
Got the
time? GET
[Link]
2:00
<file>
time

Q: other human protocols?

Introduction: 1-7
Chapter 1: roadmap
 What is the Internet?
 What is a protocol?
 Network edge: hosts, access
network, physical media
 Network core: packet/circuit
switching, internet structure
 Performance: loss, delay,
throughput
 Security
 Protocol layers, service models
 History Introduction: 1-8
A closer look at Internet structure
mobile network

Network edge: national or global ISP

 hosts: clients and servers

 servers often in data centers
local or
regional
ISP
home network content
provider
network datacenter
network

enterprise
network

Introduction: 1-9
A closer look at Internet structure
mobile network

Network edge: national or global ISP

 hosts: clients and servers

 servers often in data centers
local or
Access networks, physical regional
ISP

media: home network content

provider
wired, wireless communication network datacenter
network

links
enterprise
network

Introduction: 1-10
A closer look at Internet structure
mobile network

Network edge: national or global ISP

 hosts: clients and servers

 servers often in data centers
local or
Access networks, physical regional
ISP

media: home network content

provider
wired, wireless communication network datacenter
network

links
Network core: enterprise
network
 interconnected routers
Introduction: 1-11
Access networks and physical media
Q: How to connect end mobile network

systems to edge router?

national or global ISP

 residential access nets

 institutional access networks (school,
company)
local or
 mobile access networks (WiFi, 4G/5G) regional
ISP
home network content
provider
network datacenter
network

enterprise
network

Introduction: 1-12
Access networks: cable-based
access cable headend

cable splitter
modem

C
O
V V V V V V N
I I I I I I D D T
D D D D D D A A R
E E E E E E T T O
O O O O O O A A L

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Channels

frequency division multiplexing (FDM): different channels transmitted in

different frequency bands
Introduction: 1-13
Access networks: cable-based
access cable headend

cable splitter cable modem

modem CMTS termination system
data, TV transmitted at different
frequencies over shared cable ISP
distribution network

 HFC: hybrid fiber coax

• asymmetric: up to 40 Mbps – 1.2 Gbps downstream transmission rate, 30-
100 Mbps upstream transmission rate
 network of cable, fiber attaches homes to ISP router
• homes share access network to cable headend
Introduction: 1-14
Access networks: home
networks
Wireless and wired
devices

to/from headend or
central office
often combined
in single box

cable or DSL
modem
WiFi wireless router, firewall, NAT
access
point (54, 450 wired Ethernet (1 Gbps)
Mbps) Introduction: 1-15
Wireless access networks
Shared wireless access network connects end system to
router
 via base station aka “access point”
Wireless local area networks Wide-area cellular access
(WLANs) networks
 typically within or around  provided by mobile, cellular
building (~100 ft) network operator (10’s km)
 802.11b/g/n (WiFi): 11, 54, 450  10’s Mbps
Mbps transmission rate  4G/5G cellular networks

to Internet
to Internet
Introduction: 1-16
Access networks: enterprise
networks
Enterprise link to
ISP (Internet)
institutional router
Ethernet institutional mail,
switch web servers

 companies, universities, etc.

 mix of wired, wireless link technologies, connecting a mix of
switches and routers (we’ll cover differences shortly)
 Ethernet: wired access at 100Mbps, 1Gbps, 10Gbps
 WiFi: wireless access points at 11, 54, 450 Mbps
Introduction: 1-17
Access networks: data center
networks
mobile network
 high-bandwidth links (10s to 100s national or global ISP
Gbps) connect hundreds to
thousands of servers together, and
to Internet
local or
regional
ISP
home network content
provider
network datacenter
network

Courtesy: Massachusetts Green High Performance enterprise

Computing Center ([Link]) network

Introduction: 1-18
Host: sends packets of data
host sending function:
 takes application message
 breaks into smaller chunks, two packets,
known as packets, of length L L bits each
bits
 transmits packet into access 2 1

network at transmission rate R host

• link transmission rate, aka R: link transmission rate
link capacity, aka link
bandwidthpacket time needed to L (bits)
transmission = transmit L-bit =
delay packet into link R (bits/sec)
Introduction: 1-19
Links: physical media
 bit: propagates between Twisted pair (TP)
transmitter/receiver pairs
 two insulated copper wires
 physical link: what lies • Category 5: 100 Mbps, 1 Gbps
between transmitter & Ethernet
receiver • Category 6: 10Gbps Ethernet
 guided media:
• signals propagate in
solid media: copper,
fiber, coax
 unguided media:
• signals propagate
freely, e.g., radio
Introduction: 1-20
Links: physical media
Coaxial cable: Fiber optic cable:
 two concentric copper  glass fiber carrying light pulses, each
conductors pulse a bit
 high-speed operation:
 bidirectional
• high-speed point-to-point
 broadband: transmission (10’s-100’s Gbps)
• multiple frequency channels on  low error rate:
cable
• 100’s Mbps per channel • repeaters spaced far apart
• immune to electromagnetic noise

Introduction: 1-21
Links: physical media
Wireless radio Radio link types:
 signal carried in various  Wireless LAN (WiFi)
“bands” in electromagnetic • 10-100’s Mbps; 10’s of meters
spectrum  wide-area (e.g., 4G/5G cellular)
 no physical “wire” • 100’s Mbps (4G/5G) over ~10 Km
 broadcast, “half-duplex”  Bluetooth: cable replacement
(sender to receiver)
• short distances, limited rates
 propagation environment
effects:  terrestrial microwave
• reflection • point-to-point; 45 Mbps channels
• obstruction by objects  satellite
• Interference/noise • up to < 100 Mbps (Starlink)
downlink
• 270 msec end-end delay Introduction: 1-22
Chapter 1: roadmap
 What is the Internet?
 What is a protocol?
 Network edge: hosts, access
network, physical media
 Network core: packet/circuit
switching, internet structure
 Performance: loss, delay,
throughput
 Security
 Protocol layers, service models
 History Introduction: 1-23
The network core
 mesh of interconnected routers
mobile network
national or global ISP
 packet-switching: hosts break
application-layer messages into
packets
• network forwards packets from local or
one router to the next, across regional
ISP
links on path from source to home network content
destination provider
network datacenter
network

enterprise
network

Introduction: 1-24
 Two key network-core functions

routing Routing:
algorithm
Forwarding: localforwarding
local forwardingtable
table
 global action:
header value output link determine source-
 aka “switching” 0100
0101
3
2 destination paths
 local action: 0111 2
taken by packets
move arriving 1001 1

packets from  routing algorithms

router’s input 1
link to
3 2
appropriate
router output 01
11

link
destination address in arriving
packet’s header
Introduction: 1-25
routing

Introduction: 1-26
 forwarding
forwarding

Introduction: 1-27
 Packet-switching: store-and-forward

L bits
per packet
32 1
source destination
R bps R bps

 packet transmission delay: takes L/R One-hop numerical

seconds to transmit (push out) L-bit packet example:
into link at R bps  L = 10 Kbits
 store and forward: entire packet must arrive  R = 100 Mbps
at router before it can be transmitted on  one-hop transmission
next link delay = 0.1 msec
Introduction: 1-28
Packet-switching: queueing
R = 100 Mb/s
A C

D
B R = 1.5 Mb/s
E
queue of packets
waiting for transmission
over output link

Queueing occurs when work arrives faster than it can be serviced:

Introduction: 1-29
Packet-switching: queueing
R = 100 Mb/s
A C

D
B R = 1.5 Mb/s
E
queue of packets
waiting for transmission
over output link

Packet queuing and loss: if arrival rate (in bps) to link

exceeds transmission rate (bps) of link for some period of time:
 packets will queue, waiting to be transmitted on output link
 packets can be dropped (lost) if memory (buffer) in router fills
up
Introduction: 1-30
Alternative to packet switching: circuit
switching
end-end resources allocated to,
reserved for “call” between source
and destination
 in diagram, each link has four circuits.
• call gets 2nd circuit in top link and
1st circuit in right link.
 dedicated resources: no sharing
• circuit-like (guaranteed)
performance
 circuit segment idle if not used by call
(no sharing)used in traditional telephone
 commonly
networks
* Check out the online interactive exercises for more examples: [Link]
Introduction: 1-31
Circuit switching: FDM and TDM
Frequency Division Multiplexing
(FDM) 4 users

frequency
 optical, electromagnetic
frequencies divided into (narrow)
frequency bands
 each call allocated its own band,
can transmit at max rate of that time
narrow band

frequency
Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)
 time divided into slots
 each call allocated periodic slot(s),
can transmit at maximum rate of time
(wider) frequency band (only)
during its time slot(s) Introduction: 1-32
Packet switching versus circuit
switching
example:
 1 Gb/s link
N

…..
 each user: users 1 Gbps link
• 100 Mb/s when “active”
• active 10% of time

Q: how many users can use this network under circuit-switching and packet
switching?
 circuit-switching: 10 users
 packet switching: with 35 Q: how did we get value 0.0004?
users, probability > 10 active at
same time is less than .0004 *
A: HW problem (for those with
course in probability only)

* Check out the online interactive exercises for more examples: [Link]
Introduction: 1-33
Packet switching versus circuit
switching
Is packet switching a “slam dunk
 winner”?
great for “bursty” data – sometimes has data to send, but at other times
not
• resource sharing
• simpler, no call setup
 excessive congestion possible: packet delay and loss due to buffer
overflow
• protocols needed for reliable data transfer, congestion control
 Q: How to provide circuit-like behavior with packet-switching?
• “It’s complicated.” We’ll study various techniques that try to make
Q: packet
humanswitching
analogies as “circuit-like”
of reservedasresources
possible. (circuit switching)
versus on-demand allocation (packet switching)?
Introduction: 1-34
Internet structure: a “network of
networks”
mobile network
 hosts connect to Internet via national or global ISP
access Internet Service
Providers (ISPs)
 access ISPs in turn must be
interconnected local or
regional
• so that any two hosts ISP

(anywhere!) can send packets to home network content

provider
each other network datacenter
network

 resulting network of networks is enterprise

very complex network

• evolution driven by economics,

Let’snational policies approach to describe current Internet
take a stepwise
Internet structure: a “network of
networks”
Question: given millions of access ISPs, how to connect them
together?
… access
net
access
net …
access
net
access
access net
net
access
access net
net
…

…
access access
net net

access
net
access
net

access
net
access
net
… access
net access
access
net
…
net

Introduction: 1-36
Internet structure: a “network of
networks”
Question: given millions of access ISPs, how to connect them
together?
… access
net
access
net …
access
net
access
access
net
… … net

access
access net
net

connecting each access ISP

…

…
to each other directly doesn’t

…
scale: O(N2) connections.
access access
…

net net

access
net
access
net

access
net
access
… access
… … net
access
net access net
net

Introduction: 1-37
Internet structure: a “network of
networks”
Option: connect each access ISP to one global transit ISP?
Customer and provider ISPs have economic agreement.
… access
net
access
net …
access
net
access
access net
net
access
access net
net
…

…
global
access
net
ISP access
net

access
net
access
net

access
net
access
net
… access
net access
access
net
…
net

Introduction: 1-38
Internet structure: a “network of
networks”
But if one global ISP is viable business, there will be competitors ….

… access
net
access
net …
access
net
access
access net
net
access

ISP A
access net
net
…

…
access
net ISP B access
net

access ISP C
net
access
net

access
net
access
net
… access
net access
access
net
…
net

Introduction: 1-39
Internet structure: a “network of
networks”
But if one global ISP is viable business, there will be competitors ….
who will want to be connected
Internet exchange point
… access
net
access
net …
access
net
access
access net
net
IXP access

ISP A
access net
net
…

…
access
net
IXP ISP B access
net

access ISP C
net
access
net

access
net
peering link
access
net
… access
net access
access
net
…
net

Introduction: 1-40
Internet structure: a “network of
networks”
… and regional networks may arise to connect access nets
to ISPs
… … access
net
access
net
access
net
access
access net
net
IXP access

ISP A
access net
net
…

…
access
net
IXP ISP B access
net

access ISP C
net
access
net

access
net regional ISP access
net
… access
net access
access
net
…
net

Introduction: 1-41
Internet structure: a “network of
networks”
… and content provider networks (e.g., Google, Microsoft,
Akamai) may run their own network, to bring services, content
close to end users … … access
net
access
net
access
net
access
access net
net
IXP access

ISP A
access net
net
…

…
Content provider network
access
net
IXP ISP B access
net

access ISP C
net
access
net

access
net regional ISP access
net
… access
net access
access
net
…
net

Introduction: 1-42
 Internet structure: a “network of
networks”
Tier 1 ISP Tier 1 ISP Google
IXP IXP IXP
Regional ISP Regional ISP

access access access access access access access access

ISP ISP ISP ISP ISP ISP ISP ISP

At “center”: small # of well-connected large networks

 “tier-1” commercial ISPs (e.g., Level 3, Sprint, AT&T, NTT), national & international
coverage
 content provider networks (e.g., Google, Facebook): private network that
connects its data centers to Internet, often bypassing tier-1, regional ISPs Introduction: 1-43
Chapter 1: roadmap
 What is the Internet?
 What is a protocol?
 Network edge: hosts, access
network, physical media
 Network core: packet/circuit
switching, internet structure
 Performance: loss, delay,
throughput
 Security
 Protocol layers, service models
 History Introduction: 1-44
How do packet delay and loss occur?
 packets queue in router buffers, waiting for turn for transmission
 queue length grows when arrival rate to link (temporarily) exceeds output
link capacity
 packet loss occurs when memory to hold queued packets fills up
packet being transmitted (transmission delay)

B
packets in buffers (queueing delay)
free (available) buffers: arriving packets
dropped (loss) if no free buffers
Introduction: 1-45
Packet delay: four sources
transmission
A propagation

B
nodal
processing queueing

dnodal = dproc + dqueue + dtrans +

dprop
dproc: nodal dqueue: queueing delay
processing  time waiting at output link for
 check bit errors transmission
 determine output link  depends on congestion level of
router
 typically < microsecs Introduction: 1-46
Packet delay: four sources
transmission
A propagation

B
nodal
processing queueing

dnodal = dproc + dqueue + dtrans +

dprop
dtrans: transmission delay: dprop: propagation delay:
 L: packet length (bits)  d: length of physical link
 R: link transmission rate  s: propagation speed (~2x108
(bps) m/sec)
 dtrans = L/R dtrans and dprop  dprop = d/s
very different
Introduction: 1-47
Caravan analogy
100 km 100 km

ten-car caravan toll booth toll booth toll booth

(aka 10-bit (aka link)
packet)
 car ~ bit; caravan ~ packet;  time to “push” entire
toll service ~ link transmission caravan through toll booth
 toll booth takes 12 sec to onto highway = 12*10 =
service car (bit transmission 120 sec
time)  time for last car to
 “propagate” at 100 km/hr propagate from 1st to 2nd
toll both: 100km/(100km/hr)
 Q: How long until caravan is = 1 hr
lined up before 2nd toll booth?
 A: 62 minutes Introduction: 1-48
Caravan analogy
100 km 100 km

ten-car caravan toll booth toll booth

(aka 10-bit (aka router)
packet)

 suppose cars now “propagate” at 1000 km/hr

 and suppose toll booth now takes one min to service a car
 Q: Will cars arrive to 2nd booth before all cars serviced at first
booth?
A: Yes! after 7 min, first car arrives at second booth; three cars
still at first booth

Introduction: 1-49
Packet queueing delay (revisited)
 a: average packet arrival rate

average queueing delay

 L: packet length (bits)
 R: link bandwidth (bit transmission
rate)
L. a arrival rate of bits “traffic
:
R service rate of bits intensity” traffic intensity = La/R 1

 La/R ~ 0: avg. queueing delay La/R ~ 0

small
 La/R -> 1: avg. queueing delay
large
 La/R > 1: more “work” arriving is La/R -> 1
more than can be serviced - Introduction: 1-50
“Real” Internet delays and routes
 what do “real” Internet delay & loss look like?
 traceroute program: provides delay measurement from
source to router along end-end Internet path towards
destination. For all i:
• sends three packets that will reach router i on path towards
destination (with time-to-live field value of i)
• router i will return packets to sender
• sender measures time interval between transmission and
reply
3 probes 3 probes

3 probes

Introduction: 1-51
Real Internet delays and routes
traceroute: [Link] to [Link]
3 delay measurements from
[Link] to [Link]
1 cs-gw ([Link]) 1 ms 1 ms 2 ms 3 delay measurements
2 [Link] ([Link]) 1 ms 1 ms 2 ms
3 [Link] ([Link]) 6 ms 5 ms 5 ms to [Link]
4 [Link] ([Link]) 16 ms 11 ms 13 ms
5 [Link] ([Link]) 21 ms 18 ms 18 ms
6 [Link] ([Link]) 22 ms 18 ms 22 ms
7 [Link] ([Link]) 22 ms 22 ms 22 ms trans-oceanic link
8 [Link] ([Link]) 104 ms 109 ms 106 ms
9 [Link] ([Link]) 109 ms 102 ms 104 ms
10 [Link] ([Link]) 113 ms 121 ms 114 ms
11 [Link] ([Link]) 112 ms 114 ms 112 ms looks like delays
12 [Link] ([Link]) 111 ms 114 ms 116 ms decrease! Why?
13 [Link] ([Link]) 123 ms 125 ms 124 ms
14 [Link] ([Link]) 126 ms 126 ms 124 ms
15 [Link] ([Link]) 135 ms 128 ms 133 ms
16 [Link] ([Link]) 126 ms 128 ms 126 ms
17 * * *
18 * * * * means no response (probe lost, router not replying)
19 [Link] ([Link]) 132 ms 128 ms 136 ms

* Do some traceroutes from exotic countries at [Link]

Introduction: 1-52
Packet loss
 queue (aka buffer) preceding link in buffer has finite capacity
 packet arriving to full queue dropped (aka lost)
 lost packet may be retransmitted by previous node, by
source end system, or not at all
buffer
(waiting area) packet being transmitted
A

B
packet arriving to
full buffer is lost

* Check out the Java applet for an interactive animation (on publisher’s website) of queuing and loss
Introduction: 1-53
 Throughput
 throughput: rate (bits/time unit) at which bits are being sent from
sender to receiver
• instantaneous: rate at given point in time
• average: rate over longer period of time

link capacity
pipe that can linkthat
pipe capacity
can carry
Rs bits/sec
carry Rfluid
c bits/sec
at rate
server sends
server, with
bits fluid at rate (Rc bits/sec)
file of F bits (Rs bits/sec)
(fluid) into pipe
to send to client
Introduction: 1-54
Throughput
Rs < Rc What is average end-end throughput?

Rs bits/sec Rc bits/sec

Rs > Rc What is average end-end throughput?

Rs bits/sec Rc bits/sec

bottleneck link
link on end-end path that constrains end-end
throughput
Introduction: 1-55
Throughput: network scenario
 per-connection end-
Rs
end throughput:
Rs Rs min(Rc,Rs,R/10)
 in practice: Rc or Rs is
R often bottleneck
Rc Rc
Rc
* Check out the online interactive exercises for more
examples: [Link]

10 connections (fairly) share

backbone bottleneck link R
bits/sec Introduction: 1-56
Chapter 1: roadmap
 What is the Internet?
 What is a protocol?
 Network edge: hosts, access
network, physical media
 Network core: packet/circuit
switching, internet structure
 Performance: loss, delay,
throughput
 Security
 Protocol layers, service models
 History Introduction: 1-57
Network security
 Internet not originally designed with (much) security in
mind
• original vision: “a group of mutually trusting users attached
to a transparent network” 
• Internet protocol designers playing “catch-up”
• security considerations in all layers!
 We now need to think about:
• how bad guys can attack computer networks
• how we can defend networks against attacks
• how to design architectures that are immune to attacks
Introduction: 1-58
Network security
 Internet not originally designed with (much) security in
mind
• original vision: “a group of mutually trusting users attached
to a transparent network” 
• Internet protocol designers playing “catch-up”
• security considerations in all layers!
 We now need to think about:
• how bad guys can attack computer networks
• how we can defend networks against attacks
• how to design architectures that are immune to attacks
Introduction: 1-59
Bad guys: packet interception
packet “sniffing”:
 broadcast media (shared Ethernet, wireless)
 promiscuous network interface reads/records all packets
(e.g., including passwords!) passing by

A C

src:B dest:A payload

B

Wireshark software used for our end-of-chapter labs is a (free) packet-

sniffer
Introduction: 1-60
Bad guys: fake identity
IP spoofing: injection of packet with false source
address

A C

src:B dest:A payload

Introduction: 1-61
Bad guys: denial of service
Denial of Service (DoS): attackers make resources
(server, bandwidth) unavailable to legitimate traffic
by overwhelming resource with bogus traffic

1. select target
2. break into hosts
around the network
(see botnet)
target
3. send packets to
target from
compromised hosts
Introduction: 1-62
Lines of defense:
 authentication: proving you are who you say you are
• cellular networks provides hardware identity via SIM card; no
such hardware assist in traditional Internet
 confidentiality: via encryption
 integrity checks: digital signatures prevent/detect
tampering
 access restrictions: password-protected VPNs
 firewalls: specialized “middleboxes” in access and core
networks:
 off-by-default: filter incoming packets to restrict senders,
receivers, applications
 detecting/reacting to DOS attacks
… lots more on security (throughout, Chapter 8) Introduction: 1-63
Chapter 1: roadmap
 What is the Internet?
 What is a protocol?
 Network edge: hosts, access
network, physical media
 Network core: packet/circuit
switching, internet structure
 Performance: loss, delay,
throughput
 Security
 Protocol layers, service models
 History Introduction: 1-64
Protocol “layers” and reference
models
Networks are complex, Question: is there any
with many “pieces”: hope of organizing
 hosts structure of network?
 routers and/or our
 links of various media discussion of
networks?
 applications
 protocols
 hardware, software

Introduction: 1-65
Example: organization of air travel
end-to-end transfer of person plus baggage
ticket (purchase) ticket (complain)
baggage (check) baggage (claim)
gates (load) gates (unload)
runway takeoff runway landing
airplane routing airplane routing
airplane routing

How would you define/discuss the system of airline

travel?
 a series of steps, involving many services
Introduction: 1-66
Example: organization of air travel

ticket (purchase) ticketing service ticket (complain)

baggage (check) baggage service baggage (claim)
gates (load) gate service gates (unload)
runway takeoff runway service runway landing
airplane routing routing service
airplane routing airplane routing

layers: each layer implements a service

 via its own internal-layer actions
 relying on services provided by layer
below Introduction: 1-67
Why layering?
Approach to designing/discussing complex
systems:
explicit structure allows
identification, relationship of
system’s pieces
• layered reference model for discussion
 modularization eases maintenance,
updating of system
• change in layer's service
implementation: transparent to rest of
system
• e.g., change in gate procedure doesn’t
affect rest of system Introduction: 1-68
Layered Internet protocol stack
 application: supporting network
applications
• HTTP, IMAP, SMTP, DNS
application
application
 transport: process-process data transfer transport
transport
• TCP, UDP
 network: routing of datagrams from network
source to destination
• IP, routing protocols link
 link: data transfer between neighboring physical
network elements
• Ethernet, 802.11 (WiFi), PPP
 physical: bits “on the wire”
Introduction: 1-69
 Services, Layering and Encapsulation
M
application Application exchanges messages to implement application
some application service using services of transport
layer
Ht M
transport Transport-layer protocol transfers M (e.g., reliably) transport
from one process to another, using services of
network layer
network  transport-layer protocol encapsulates network
application-layer message, M, with
link transport layer-layer header Ht to link
create a transport-layer segment
• Ht used by transport layer protocol
physical to implement its service physical

source destination

Introduction: 1-70
 Services, Layering and Encapsulation
M
application application
Ht M
transport Transport-layer protocol transfers M (e.g., reliably) transport
from one process to another, using services of
network layer
network Hn Ht M
network
Network-layer protocol transfers transport-layer
segment [Ht | M] from one host to another, using link
layer services
link link
 network-layer protocol encapsulates
transport-layer segment [Ht | M] with
physical network layer-layer header Hn to physical
create a network-layer datagram
source • Hn used by network layer protocol to destination
implement its service
Introduction: 1-71
 Services, Layering and Encapsulation
M
application application
Ht M
transport transport

network Hn Ht M
network
Network-layer protocol transfers transport-layer
segment [Ht | M] from one host to another, using link
link Hl Hlayer
n Ht
services
M link
Link-layer protocol transfers datagram [Hn| [Ht |M]
from host to neighboring host, using network-layer
physical services physical
 link-layer protocol encapsulates
network datagram [Hn| [Ht |M], with link-
source layer header Hl to create a link-layer destination
frame
Introduction: 1-72
 Encapsulation
Matryoshka dolls (stacking dolls)

message segment datagram frame

Credit: [Link] Introduction: 1-73

 Services, Layering and Encapsulation

application message M M application

transport segment Ht M Ht M transport

datagram Hn Ht
network M Hn Ht M
network

frame Hl Hn Ht Hl Hn Ht
link M M
link

physical physical

source destination

Introduction: 1-74
 source
Encapsulation:
an end-end view
message M application
segment Ht M transport
datagram Hn Ht M network
frame Hl Hn Ht M link
physical
link
physical

switch

destination Hn Ht M network
Hl Hn Ht M link Hn Ht
M application M
Ht M transport physical
Hn Ht M network
Hl Hn Ht M link router
physical
Introduction: 1-75
Chapter 1: roadmap
 What is the Internet?
 What is a protocol?
 Network edge: hosts, access
network, physical media
 Network core: packet/circuit
switching, internet structure
 Performance: loss, delay,
throughput
 Security
 Protocol layers, service models
 History Introduction: 1-76
Internet history
1961-1972: Early packet-switching principles
 1961: Kleinrock - queueing  1972:
theory shows effectiveness • ARPAnet public demo
of packet-switching • NCP (Network Control
 1964: Baran - packet- Protocol) first host-host
switching in military nets protocol
 1967: ARPAnet conceived • first e-mail program
by Advanced Research • ARPAnet has 15 nodes
Projects Agency
 1969: first ARPAnet node
operational
Internet history
1972-1980: Internetworking, new and proprietary networks
 1970: ALOHAnet satellite
Cerf and Kahn’s internetworking
network in Hawaii principles:
 1974: Cerf and Kahn -  minimalism, autonomy - no
architecture for internal changes required to
interconnecting networks interconnect networks
 best-effort service model
 1976: Ethernet at Xerox  stateless routing
PARC
 decentralized control
 late70’s: proprietary define today’s Internet
architectures: DECnet, SNA, architecture
XNA
 1979: ARPAnet has 200 Introduction: 1-78
Internet history
1980-1990: new protocols, a proliferation of networks
 1983: deployment of TCP/IP  new national networks: CSnet,
 1982: smtp e-mail protocol BITnet, NSFnet, Minitel
defined  100,000 hosts connected to
 1983: DNS defined for confederation of networks
name-to-IP-address
translation
 1985: ftp protocol defined
 1988: TCP congestion
control
Introduction: 1-79
Internet history
1990, 2000s: commercialization, the Web, new applications
 early 1990s: ARPAnet late 1990s – 2000s:
decommissioned  more killer apps: instant
 1991: NSF lifts restrictions on messaging, P2P file sharing
commercial use of NSFnet  network security to forefront
(decommissioned, 1995)
 est. 50 million host, 100
 early 1990s: Web million+ users
• hypertext [Bush 1945, Nelson 1960’s]
• HTML, HTTP: Berners-Lee  backbone links running at
• 1994: Mosaic, later Netscape
Gbps
• late 1990s: commercialization of the
Web
Introduction: 1-80
Internet history
2005-present: scale, SDN, mobility, cloud
 aggressive deployment of broadband home access (10-100’s
Mbps)
 2008: software-defined networking (SDN)
 increasing ubiquity of high-speed wireless access: 4G/5G, WiFi
 service providers (Google, FB, Microsoft) create their own networks
• bypass commercial Internet to connect “close” to end user, providing
“instantaneous” access to social media, search, video content, …
 enterprises run their services in “cloud” (e.g., Amazon Web Services,
Microsoft Azure)
 rise of smartphones: more mobile than fixed devices on Internet
(2017) Introduction: 1-81
Chapter 1: summary
We’ve covered a “ton” of
material!
 Internet overview You now have:
 what’s a protocol?
 context,
 network edge, access network, overview,
core
• packet-switching versus circuit- vocabulary,
switching “feel” of
• Internet structure networking
 performance: loss, delay,  more depth,
throughput detail, and fun to
 layering, service models follow!
 security Introduction: 1-82
Additional Chapter 1 slides

Introduction: 1-83
 ISO/OSI reference model
Two layers not found in Internet
application
protocol stack!
presentation
 presentation: allow applications to
interpret meaning of data, e.g., session
encryption, compression, machine- transport
specific conventions network
 session: synchronization, link
checkpointing, recovery of data
exchange physical
 Internet stack “missing” these layers! The seven layer OSI/ISO
reference model
• these services, if needed, must be
implemented in application
Introduction: 1-84
More than seven OSI layers

Introduction: 1-85
 Services, Layering and Encapsulation
M
application M application
message
Ht M
transport Ht M transport
segment

network Hn Ht M Hn Ht M
network
datagram
Hl Hn Ht
link Hl Hn Ht M M
link
frame

physical physical

source destination

Introduction: 1-86
Wireshark
application
(www browser,
packet
email client)
analyzer
application

OS
packet Transport (TCP/UDP)
capture copy of all Network (IP)
Ethernet frames Link (Ethernet)
(pcap) sent/received
Physical

Introduction: 1-87