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The document discusses sediment transport in irrigation channels, emphasizing its significance in channel design to prevent siltation and maintain operational efficiency. It explains the mechanics of sediment movement, including bed load and suspended load, and the critical conditions for sediment motion, which are essential for designing stable, non-scouring channels. Additionally, it introduces Shield's Entrainment Method for calculating critical tractive stress to aid in the design of channels that minimize sediment movement.
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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
5 views10 pagesChapter 4
The document discusses sediment transport in irrigation channels, emphasizing its significance in channel design to prevent siltation and maintain operational efficiency. It explains the mechanics of sediment movement, including bed load and suspended load, and the critical conditions for sediment motion, which are essential for designing stable, non-scouring channels. Additionally, it introduces Shield's Entrainment Method for calculating critical tractive stress to aid in the design of channels that minimize sediment movement.
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nexonahmadCopyright
© All Rights Reserved
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Available Formats
Download as PDF or read online on Scribd
Sediment Transport and
Design of Irrigation Channels
Whenever water flows in a channel (natural or artificial), it tries to scour its surface.
Silt or gravel or even larger boulders are detached from the bed or sides of the channel. i
These detached particles are swept downstream by the moving water. This phenomenon
is known as Sediment Transport. | ii
4.1. Importance of Sediment Transport
cial channels get silted up so badly, that they soon become inoperable, causing huge
economic loss to the public exchequer. The artificial channels should, therefore, be
properly designed, and should not fail to carry the sediment load admitted at the canal
headworks.
(ii) The design and execution of a flood control scheme is chiefly governed by the
peak flood levels, which, in turn, depend upon the scour and deposition of sediment. |
Firstly, the bed levels may change by direct scouring or deposition of sediment, and |
thereby changing the flood levels. Secondly, the scouring and silting on the river banks |
may create sharp and irregular curves, which inciease the flow resistance of the channel, 4
and thereby, raising the flood levels for the same discharge.
; OH
ii) Silting of reservoirs’ and rivers is another important aspect of sediment :
W
of irrigation canals, thereby increasing their maintenance. Many poorly designed artifi-
|
i
(@ The phenomenon of sediment transport causes large scale scouring and siltation |
tansport. The storage capacity of the reservoir is reduced by its silting, thereby, reducing
its use and life. Natural rivers used for navigation are frequently silted up, reducing the
clear depth (draft) required for navigation. Sediment deposited in these rivers and \
harbours may often require costly dredgings.
Sediment transport, thus, poses numerous problems, and is a subject of great im-
Portance, and possesses enough potential for further research and development.
4.2. Sediment Load
The sediment in a canal is a burden to’ be borne-by the flowing water, and is,
therefore, designated as sediment load.
Bed Load and Suspended Load.. The. sediment may. move-in-water either-as-bed--~-—-
load or as suspended load. Bed load is that in which the sediment moves along the bed
with occasional jumps into the channel. While, the suspended load is the one in which
the material is maintained in suspension due to the turbulence of the flowing water. |
* For details of reservoir silting, please see Chapter 18.
95 |
' 96 IRRIGATION ENGINEERING AND HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES.
4,3, Bed Formation (Practical Aspect)
The channel bed may be distorted into various shapes by the moving water, depend-
ing upon the discharge or the ‘velocity of the water.
At low velocities, the bed does not move at all, but it goes on assuming different
shapes as the velocity increases. Let us see what happens to a channal bed made of fine
sand (lesser than 2mm dia) when the velocity is gradually increased in steps.
When the velocity is gradually increased, then first of all, a stage is reached, when
the sediment load comes just at the point of motion. This stage is known as threshold
stage of motion. On further increase of velocity, the bed develops ripples of the
saw-tooth type, as shown in Fig. 4.1 (a). Such ripples can also be seen in sand on any
beach. As the velocity is increased further, larger periodic irregularities appear, and are
called Dunes. When they first appear, ripples are superimposed on them [Fig. 4.1 (4).
But at still higher velocities, the ripples disappear and only the dunes are left (Fig. 4.1
(c)]. Dunes may form in any grain size of sediment, but ripples do not occur if the size
INCIPIENT BREAKING _
AND MOVING UPSTREAM
( Antidunes.
Fig. 4.1. Different shapes of bed developed along river flow with gradual increase
in discharge or flow velocity. RE RG re WR SEER REE a REET tro ene eee
Serer SRR SITY FETTER NCS
SEDIMENT TRANSPORT AND DESIGN OF IRRIGATION CHANNELS 97
of the bed particles is coarser than 0.6 mm. Dunes are much larger (in length and height)
and more rounded than ripples. [Link] so that ripples seldom exceed 40 cm in length
(between two adjacent troughs) and 4 cm in height (trough to crest), while the dunes in
laboratory flumes may have 3m length and height up to about 40 cm, while in large
rivers, they may be as high as 15 metres, with several hundred metres length. Crests of
both, do not extend across the entire width of the stream, “e., both formations tend to
occur in the form, of “short crested waves”. The flow conditions remain sub-critical in
both these regimes. While most of the sediment particles move along the bed, some finer
particles of sediment may go in suspension.
When the velocity is increased beyond formation of dunes, the dunes are erased by
the flow, leaving very small undulations or virtually a flat surface with sediment par-
ti¢les in motion [Fig. 4.1 (@)]. Further increase in velocity, results in the formation of
sand waves in association with surface waves [Fig. 4.1 (6)]. As the velocity is further
V. . i
increased, so as to make the Froude number | i.e. 7 exceeding unity, the flow
becomes super-critical, and the surface waves become so st feep that they break intermit-
tently and move upstream, although the sediment Particles keep on moving downstream
only (Fig. 4.1 ()]. Sand Waves are then called anti-dunes, since the direction of move-
ment of bed forms in this regime is opposite to that of the dunes. The sediment transport
tate in this regime is obviously very high. The resistance’ to flow is, however, small
compared to that of the ripple and dune regime. In case-of canals and natural streams,
anti-dunes rarely occur,
4.4. Mechanics of Sediment Transport
In the study of mechanics of sediment transport, we will throughout assume that the
soil is incoherent, By incoherent soil, we mean that there are no cohesive forces between
the particles, or in other words c= 0, such as in sands or gravels.
Most of our-river beds are made up of sands’and gravels, and hence, we confine
ourselves to the mechanism of movement of such a soil only. Though cohesive clays,
etc. are also sometimes met with, but no
systematic study upon such soils has been
undertaken and only very little-work has
been done in that direction.
By assuming the soil to be in-
coherent, each soil grain can be studied
individually, The basic mechanism be-
hind the phenomenon of sediment
transport is the drag force exerted by
Water (or fluid) in the direction of flow,
on the channel bed. This force, which is
nothing but a puil of water on the wetted
area, is known as Tractive Force or Shear
Force or Drag Force,
Let us consider a channel of length L and cross-sectional area A.
The volume of water stored in this channel reach = AL
Wt. of water stored = YwAL
where ¥, = unit wt, of water = p,,g, where P,, is the density of water.
Fig. 4.2.
Wt. of water stored:
AL 98 IRRIGATION ENGINEERING AND HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES
Horizontal component of this wt. = AL sin 6 = y, ALS
where S = channel bed slope.
This horizontal force exerted by water is nothing but Tractive force.
Average Tractive force per unit of wetted area
lian
= Unit Tractive Force (t)) = Wetted area
YWALS ALS
© yeued oa a rs{-> 42
Wetted perimeterx Length PL ~ |p ; $= Yo R
where R= is the hydrauli¢ mean depth o rent
S= channel bed slope
‘Yw= unit wt. of water
P= wetted perimeter
Hence, Average Unit Tractive force, also called Shear stress
== %y RS 24.1)
It may be noted that the
unit tractive force in channels,
except for wide open channels,
is not uniformly distributed
along the wetted perimeter. A
typical distribution of shear
stress (unit-tractive force) ona
trapezoidal channel section is
shown in Fig. 4.3,
Before entering into the 4v-Volve "075 TyRS
mathematical aspect Of ‘sedi=
ment transport, we will again
visualise the “threshold move-
ment of the sediment”, and its
application for design of non-scouring channels.
4.4.1, Threshold Motion of the Sediment. When the velocity of flow through a
channel is very small, the channel bed does not move at all, and the channel behaves as
a rigid boundary channel. As the flow velocity increases steadily, a stage is reached
when the shear force exerted by the flowing water on the bed particles will just exceed
the force opposing their movement. At this stage, a few particles on the bed will just
start moving intermittently. This condition is called the incipient motion condition or
_simply the critical condition or the threshold point.
Fig. 4.3. Distribution of tractive force generated in a
trapezoidal channel section.
A knowledge of the velocity at which such a critical condition occurs is quite © helpful
in designing stable non-scouring channels admitting clear waters, since this velocity will
help us in fixing the hydraulic mean depth (R)" and bed slope (Sq) of the channel. The
knowledge of this incipient motion condition is also required in some of the methods
adopted for computation of sediment load.
* This will help in fixing depth (y) and bed width (6). Co
SEDIMENT TRANSPORT AND DESIGN OF IRRIGATION CHANNELS 99
‘The experimental data on incipient motion condition was analysed using critical
tractive force approach, for the first time by Shield, so as to help in designing stable
channels in alluviums. This design basically assumes the entry of clean and clear water
in the channel, which is designed to develop nén-scouring highest possible flow velocity
at the peak flow.
4.5. Shield’s Entrainment Method for Design of Non-Scouring Stable Channels
having Protected Side Slopes in Alluviums
Shield was the first investigator, who provided a semi-theoretical analysis of the
problem of incipient condition of bed motion, and used it for designing non-scouring
channels. He defined the critical tractive stress (t,) as that average shear stress (t))
acting on the bed of the channel, at which the sediment particle just begins to move.
‘According to him, the bed particle begins to move when the drag force (F,) exerted by
the fluid on the particle, just equals or exceeds the resistance (F) offered by the particle
to its movement.
( The drag force (F,) exerted by the flow is given by :
ee [¢ d+.p,. x 4.2)
where K, = a factor depending on the shape of the
particle,
Cp = coefficient of drag.
d= The dia of the particle.
y= The density of the flowing fluid ie.
water.
Vo= The velocity of flow at the top of the
particle i.e. at the bottom of the channel.
Using Karman-Prandtl equation for the velocity distribution along a channel x-sec-
tion, the velocity of flow at the bottom of the channel (Vp) cain be expressed as :
Mo, (Vd
vy =A ( ] wwe(4.3)
=AR
or Vo=V fi Re (4.4)
1X
where V" = Shear friction velocity = “\ | *
where 1p is the shear stress acting on the
boundary of the channel.
~ . v= Kinematic viscosity-of the-flowing fluid~
ie, water.
Rt= Particle Reynold Number = V‘d/v
Also, the coefficient of drag Cp is given by :
Vo-d
of 100 IRRIGATION ENGINEERING AND HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES
«enn (e}
Hh Re 4.5)
Substituting values of Vo and Cp from Eqns. (4.4) and (4.5) in Eq. (4.2), we get
2
Fiz B-R)-8 py WR]
or [RAH LE py VERE -lA.6)
(i) The particle resistance (F5) is further given by :
F,=K,[d - (p,—p,) gl + snl. Dy
where p, = density of particle
Pw = density of fluid or water.
5,= Specific gravity of particle
Y= unit wt. of fluid or water.
K,= a factor dependent on the shape of the
Particle and internal friction of soil.
rok{e. a toc e|amte =D)
= Ky yy (S,-1) (4.8)
At critical condition, equating Eqs. (4.6) and (4.8), and introducing subscript (c) to
dexote critical conditions, we get
1 .
SFP Py VS Roly = Ka: ty? -(S.—1) 14.9)
py V2 ok
. Hd) legge] BOs Bu a. V=%
ef Ve: i = be
wee ery Ro (4.74)
(Some function of Rees)
The left hand side term-is'a diméhsionless ‘number and is called the ‘Shield’s
Entrainment function, and is usually denoted by F,
F,=F-(R*,) (4:10 a)
at critical stage of bed movement in a channel in
alluviums.
The above mathematical work shows that Fy i.e. is a function of Ry at
Te.
Yo 4 (85-1)
critical stage of bed movement 3 and based on the experimental work done by Shield,
~sraphs-have-been plotted between F, and R’, as shown in Fig. 4.4. The obtained éurve,
forms a suitable basis for the design ‘of channels, where it is required to prevent bed
movement or. to keep it to the minimum.
The application of this curve becomes more simple when Particle Reynold number
is more than 400, and as such F, becomes constant and equal to 0.056. Particle Reynold
number; representing roughness, has been found to be more than 400, when the particle
size exceeds 6 mm, such as for ‘coarse alluvium soils’.
E
rei peaeiee SEDIMENT TRANSPORT AND DESIGN OF IRRIGATION CHANNELS 101
10
g
€
és
eZ = \
55 008 st Particle movement—+1-H1 _ coristant
4 0-06) ot value= :
g 004] — +74. 9-056 i
a jj
0-02] L
ied No pdrticle movement |
0-0} eee eS OE
0206 ¥ 0 100 600.1000 |
Re’, Particle Reynold No.
Fig. 4.4. Shield’s curve for incipient motion condition.
Hence, for designing non-scouring channels in coarse alluviums
ep = 0.056 (for d > 6 mm)* 4D,
where Y= unit wt. of water = 9.81 KN/m?
or 1 tm? or 1000 kgf/m3,
The average shear stress caused on the bed of a channel by the flowing water is
given by Eq. (4.1) as :
T= YRS : Sere ere =
a where, R= Hydraulic mean radius of the channel, ie. A/P.
S= Bed slope.
Moreover, t9 $1, ;
ToS Wud (S,—1) (0.056)
or Ww RSS Yyd(S,— 1) (0.056)
or RS 6 mm)
By Strickler’s formula’, we know that Manning’s rugosity coefficient (1) is given as:
ae ____ where d is in metres
100
v6
eel (eos) ale 0.16 tL =
“ 5) saat = 3x 0619=0.0258m,
Now, d>11 RS, or Re
or Ryax = 0.455
Now usingV = 4 R? 5'2 (Manning’s formula), we have
2/3, 1/2
Van m8 (0.455 (0.01)
= 7ap5g 0-592) (041) =2.29 msec.
Assuming R= (Istapp.), @=AV = by x V=BRV
Q=bRY, if R and V are taken maximum
b will be minimum.
3 = Dyin X 0-455 % 2.29
or 4, 3 i9ggm. |
min 0.455% 2.29
Use a conservative. value of base width as 3 m. Ans.
Example 4.2, Water flows at a depth of 0.6 m in a wide stream having a bed slope
of 1 in 2500, The median diameter of the sand bed is I: mm. Determine whether the
soil grains are stationary or moving, and comment as to whether the stream bed is
scouring or non-scouring.
Solution. Since the given size of bed particles is 1.0 mm, which is less than 6 mm,
we can not use Shield’s Eq. (4.11), since Ri in this case will be less than 400.
We will, therefore, use the general Eq. (4.12), which is valid for all sizes of d.
0.409 Bam
7. N/m’)
0.409 x 1
=0.155 =0.53
*Viroit7<1 ee
“Strictly speaking, the Strickler’s formula is applicable to the rigid boundary channels only and not to
the moveable boundary channels, since it gives the roughness coefficient (n’) due to grain roughness alone, and
does not account for form roughness, which is caused by the undulations in the bed of a moveable boundary
channel. The true value of in Manning's equation will, onthe other hand, represent roughness of bed consisting
of grain roughness as well as the form roughness, together. This formula is therefore valid for rivers with beds
of coarse materials, practically free from ripples.
155 +
Waoittdsg = oe ae eee eee eee ee eee eee eee eee a ee ee ee
‘sEDIMENT TRANSPORT AND DESIGN OF IRRIGATION CHANNELS: 103
Also using Eq, (4.1), we have
t= Yy RS =9.81X 06x=a5 N/m?
= 2.35 x 10° kN/m? Y= 9.81 KN/m? for water
= 2.35 N/m “: Ry for wide streams
= 2.35 N/m? which is more than 0.53 N/m’.
Since ty > Tz, the soil grains will not be stationary, and the scouring and sediment
transport will occur. Ans. a
466, Stability of Channel Slopes (Design of Non-Scouring Channels with Un-
protected Side Slopes)
Upto now, we have considered the stability of horizontal beds, where the shear
stress T (given by T)=¥,RS) was the only disturbing force. But on side slopes of
channels, one more disturbing force, i.e., the component of the weight of the particle,
also comes into picture.
We will now consider a grain on the side slope of a channel. Various forces acting
on this grain are shown in Fig. 4.5 (a).
Now, let t,/ be the shear stress required to move the grain of weight W on the side
slopes. The free-body diagram of various forces acting on the grain is shown in Fig. 4.5
©).
Reaction=R
=Weosé
Wsin® wewt. of
Flow Direction is th ‘ai.
Perpendicular to Paper? Sain
Fig. 4.5. (a) Forces acting on a grairi on the side slope of a channel.
ve Te
S
Rtan@ 4
(6) where 6 = Angle of repose of soil. (© Free body diagram of forces.
Fig. 4.5. 104 IRRIGATION ENGINEERING AND HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES
Lett, represents the critical shear stress or the shear
stress required to move a similar grain on a horizontal T=Wtand
bed, as shown in Fig. 4.6.
Now, 7.= Wand
From Fig. 4.5 (6), a
(22)? + (W sin 6)? = [(W cos 9) tan o) Fig. 4.6.
2
2 ee = Te if
or ae ey $ sin@} = mo 3 cos 6 tan
2, 2 eee
or ret ane O=tZ cos’ 8
or 2(4.14)
or
or 2.(4.15)
a sin’ @ sin’ @
= | =| cos* @+ (sin? @ - sin? 6) "5-1 =| 1 - sin? @- =~
Te tan” tan? o>
F 2
=| 1-sin?/1+—L]| =| 1 -sintox #42 &
tan“ > tan’ o
“rc ggrg wees
tan? sin? >
or (4.16)
The above equation shows that t,’