LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY

Module 6
CELLULAR ORGANELLES AND MEMBRANE TRAFFICKING

Topics:
6.1. Mitochondria
6.2. Chloroplasts
6.3. Peroxisomes
6.4. Endoplasmic Reticulum
6.5. Golgi Apparatus
6.6 Membrane trafficking

Time Frame: 6 hours

Introduction

All eukaryotic cells contain membrane-bounded compartments that interact with the
cell's environment. Vesicles transport proteins and lipids between these
compartments via two major pathways: the outwards, exocytic pathway, carries
material synthesized in the cytoplasm to the cell milieu, and the inwards, endocytic
pathway, internalizes material from the environment to the inside of the cell

Further, this module will also tackle the cellular respiration and photosynthesis processes
which occur respectively in the mitochondria and chloroplast of the cell.
.

Objectives:

 Describe the role of mitochondria, chloroplasts, peroxisomes,

endoplasamic reticulum, Golgi Apparatus in membrane trafficking
 Discuss comprehensively the process of cellular respiration;
 Make a diagram of aerobic respiration.
 Give a detailed discussion of the process of photosynthesis

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Pre-test

Multiple Choice. Encircle the letter of the best answer.

1. Secretory cells that release relatively large quantities of glycoproteins contain

relatively large amounts of which of the following?
a. Rough endoplasmic reticulum
b. Smooth endoplasmic reticulum
c. Golgi apparatus
d. Mitochondria

2. Which cells in our body contains abundant peroxisomes?

a. Liver cells
b. Reproductive cells
c. Cardiac cells
d. Brain cells

3. The functions of Golgi apparatus include all except

a. Sorting center of the cell
b. Involved in post translational modification
c. Involved in secretory protein synthesis
d. Involved in cell plate formation

4. Which of the following biomolecules are not synthesized by the endoplasmic

reticulum?
a. Proteins
b. Lipids
c. Nucleic acids
d. Cholesterol

5. Which of the following statements about glycolysis is correct?

a. In most types of cells, glycolysis occurs only in the cytosol.
b. Glycolysis splits glycogen into two molecules of pyruvate that enter the
mitochondrion.
c. Glycolysis, like the tricarboxylic acid cycle, produces ATP
d. One turn of the tricarboxylic acid cycle produces three molecules of
FADH2 and of NADH.

6. Which statement regarding cellular respiration is correct?

a. Cellular respiration in plants occurs only during the day.
b. All living organisms carry out some form of cellular respiration.
c. Fungi and bacteria carry out aerobic cellular respiration only.
d. Only plants and animals use glucose and oxygen for cellular respiration.

7. Which of the following statements is not true of energy production in cells?

a. Cells release large amounts of energy in the form of heat.
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b. ATP is the primary form of energy for the cell.

c. Energy is released when ATP is converted to ADP.
d. In cells, energy is released in small, controlled amounts

8. A green plant is kept in a brightly lighted area for 48 hours. What will most likely
occur if thelight intensity is then reduced slightly during the next 48 hours?
a. The rate at which nitrogen is used by the plant will increase.
b. Photosynthesis will stop completely.
c. The rate at which oxygen is released from the plant will decrease.
d. Glucose production inside each plant cell will increase.

9. During what stage of photosynthesis is O2 produced?

a. cyclic photophosphorylation
b. the light-dependent reactions involving photosystems I and II
c. carbon fixation
d. the Krebs cycle

10. During what stage of photosynthesis are ATP and NADPH converted to ADP +
Pi and NADP+?
a. the light-dependent reactions
b. the light-independent reactions
c. the light-independent reactions
d. none of the above

Learning Activities

Lesson 6.1 Mitochondria

What is Mitochondria?
Popularly known as the “Powerhouse of the cell,” mitochondria (singular:
mitochondrion) are a double membrane-bound organelle found in most eukaryotic
organisms. They are found inside the cytoplasm and essentially functions as the
cell’s “digestive system.”
They play a major role in breaking down nutrients and generating energy-rich
molecules for the cell. Many of the biochemical reactions involved in cellular
respiration take place within the mitochondria. The term ‘mitochondrion’ is derived
from the Greek words “mitos” and “chondrion” which means “thread” and
“granules-like” respectively. It was first described by a German pathologist named
Richard Altmann in the year 1890

Mitochondria occupy 15 to 20 percent of the volume of an average mammalian liver

cell and contain more than a thousand different proteins. These organelles are best
known for their role in generating the ATP that is used to run most of the cell’s
energy-requiring activities. To accomplish this function, mitochondria are often

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associated with fatty acid-containing oil droplets from which they derive raw
materials to be oxidized. A particularly striking arrangement of mitochondria occurs
in sperm cells, where they are often found located in the midpiece, just behind the
nucleus (Fig. 30C). The movements of a sperm are powered by ATP produced in
thses mitochondria. Mitochondria are also prominent in may plant cells where they
are the primary suppliers of ATP in nonphotosynthetic tissues, as well as being a
source of ATP in photosynthetic leaf cells during periods of dark.

While energy metabolism has been the focus of interest in the study of mitochondria,
these organelles are also involved in other, unrelated activities. For example,
mitochondria are the sites of synthesis of numerous substances including certain
amino acids and the heme groups. Mitochondria also play a vital role in the uptake
and release of calcium ions. Calcium ions are essential triggers for cellular activities,
and mitochondria (along with the endoplasmic reticulum) play an important role in
regulating the Ca2+ concentration of the cytosol. The process of cell death, which
plays an enormous role in the life of all multicellular animals, is also regulated to a
large extent by events that occur within mitochondria.

Figure 29. Mitochodria (a) a Living fibroblast showing itochondria (b) Transmission electron
micrograph of a mitochondrion and (c) Localization of mitochondria in the sperm midpiece
(Karp, 2013)

Just like a factory can’t run without electricity, a cell can’t run without energy. ATP
(adenosine triphosphate) is the energy currency of the cell, and is produced in a
process known as cellular respiration. Though the process begins in the cytoplasm,
the bulk of the energy produced comes from later steps that take place in the
mitochondria.
Like we saw with the nuclear envelope, there are actually two lipid bilayers that
separate the mitochondrial contents from the cytoplasm. We refer to them as the
inner and outer mitochondrial membranes. If we cross both membranes we end up in
the matrix, where pyruvate is sent after it is created from the breakdown of glucose
(this is step 1 of cellular respiration, known as glycolysis).The space between the two
membranes is called the intermembrane space, and it has a low pH (is acidic)
because the electron transport chain embedded in the inner membrane pumps

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protons (H+) into it. Energy to make ATP comes from protons moving back into the
matrix down their gradient from the intermembrane space.

Mitochondria are also somewhat unique in that they are self-replicating and have
their own DNA, almost as if they were a completely separate cell. The prevailing
theory, known as the endosymbiotic theory, is that eukaryotes were first formed by
large prokaryotic cells engulfing smaller cells that looked a lot like mitochondria (and
chloroplasts, more on them later). Instead of being digested, the engulfed cells
remained intact and the arrangement turned out to be advantageous to both cells,
which created a symbiotic relationship.

Diagram of Mitochondria
The diagram of mitochondria below illustrates several structural features of
mitochondria (Figure 30).

Figure 30. Parts of a Mitochondria

([Link])

Structure of Mitochondria

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 The mitochondrion is a double-membrane, rod-shaped structure found in both

plant and animal cell.
 Its size ranges from 0.5 to 1.0 micrometer in diameter.
 The structure comprises an outer membrane, an inner membrane, and a gel-
like material called the matrix.
 The outer membrane and the inner membrane are made of proteins and
phospholipid layers separated by the intermembrane space.
 The outer membrane covers the surface of the mitochondrion and has a large
number of special proteins known as porins.
 It is freely permeable to ions, nutrient molecules, energy molecules like the
ADP and ATP molecules.

Cristae
The inner membrane of mitochondria is rather complex in structure. It has many
folds that form a layered structure called cristae, and this helps in increasing the
surface area inside the organelle. The cristae and the proteins of the inner
membrane aids in the production of ATP molecules. The inner membrane is strictly
permeable only to oxygen and to ATP molecules. A number of chemical reactions
take place within the inner membrane of mitochondria.

Mitochondrial Matrix
The mitochondrial matrix is a viscous fluid that contains a mixture of enzymes and
proteins. It also comprises ribosomes, inorganic ions, mitochondrial DNA, nucleotide
cofactors, and organic molecules. The enzymes present in the matrix play an
important role in the synthesis of ATP molecules.

Functions of Mitochondria
The most important function of mitochondria is to produce energy through the
process of oxidative phosphorylation. It is also involved in the following process:

1. Regulates the metabolic activity of the cell

2. Promotes the growth of new cells and cell multiplication
3. Helps in detoxifying ammonia in the liver cells
4. Plays an important role in apoptosis or programmed cell death
5. Responsible for building certain parts of the blood and various hormones like
testosterone and oestrogen
6. Helps in maintaining an adequate concentration of calcium ions within the
compartments of the cell
7. It is also involved in various cellular activities like cellular differentiation, cell
signalling, cell senescence, controlling the cell cycle and also in cell growth.

Cellular Respiration

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Cellular respiration is a set of metabolic reactions and processes that take place in
the cells of organisms to convert chemical energy from food with combination of
oxygen into adenosine triphosphate (ATP), and then release waste products. The
reactions involved in respiration are catabolic reactions, which break large molecules
into smaller ones, releasing energy because weak high-energy bonds, in particular in
molecular oxygen, are replaced by stronger bonds in the products. Respiration is
one of the key ways a cell releases chemical energy to fuel cellular activity.
Organisms that do not depend on oxygen degrade foodstuffs in a process
called fermentation

Main Metabolic Processes

Biologists differ somewhat with respect to the names, descriptions, and the number
of stages of cellular respiration. The overall process, however, can be distilled into
three main metabolic stages or steps: glycolysis, the tricarboxylic acid cycle (TCA
cycle), and oxidative phosphorylation (respiratory-chain phosphorylation).

Glycolysis
Glycolysis (which is also known as the glycolytic pathway or the Embden-Meyerhof-
Parnas pathway) is a sequence of 10 chemical reactions taking place in most cells
that breaks down a glucose molecule into two pyruvate (pyruvic acid) molecules.
Energy released during the breakdown of glucose and other organic fuel molecules
from carbohydrates, fats, and proteins during glycolysis is captured and stored in
ATP. In addition, the compound nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD +) is
converted to NADH during this step (Figure 31). Pyruvate molecules produced
during glycolysis then enter the mitochondria, where they are each converted into a
compound known as acetyl coenzyme A, which then enters the TCA cycle. (Some
sources consider the conversion of pyruvate into acetyl coenzyme A as a distinct
step, called pyruvate oxidation or the transition reaction, in the process of cellular
respiration.)

Figure 31. Glycolysis

([Link])
The generation of pyruvate through the process of glycolysis is the first step in
fermentation.
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Tricarboxylic Acid Cycle or Krebs Cycle

The TCA cycle (which is also known as the Krebs, or citric acid, cycle) plays a
central role in the breakdown, or catabolism, of organic fuel molecules. The cycle is
made up of eight steps catalyzed by eight different enzymes that produce energy at
several different stages (Figure 31). Most of the energy obtained from the TCA cycle,
however, is captured by the compounds NAD+ and flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD)
and converted later to ATP. The products of a single turn of the TCA cycle consist of
three NAD+ molecules, which are reduced (through the process of adding hydrogen,
H+) to the same number of NADH molecules, and one FAD molecule, which is
similarly reduced to a single FADH2 molecule. These molecules go on to fuel the
third stage of cellular respiration, whereas carbon dioxide, which is also produced by
the TCA cycle, is released as a waste product.

Figure 31. Tricarboxylic Acid Cycle or Krebs Cycle

([Link])

Oxidative Phosphorylation

In the oxidative phosphorylation stage, each pair of hydrogen atoms removed from
NADH and FADH2 provides a pair of electrons that—through the action of a series
of iron-containing hemoproteins, the cytochromes—eventually reduces
one atom of oxygen to form water. In 1951 it was discovered that the transfer of one
pair of electrons to oxygen results in the formation of three molecules of ATP.

Oxidative phosphorylation is the major mechanism by which the large amounts

of energy in foodstuffs are conserved and made available to the cell. The series of
steps by which electrons flow to oxygen permits a gradual lowering of the energy of
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the electrons. This part of the oxidative phosphorylation stage is sometimes called
the electron transport chain. Some descriptions of cellular respiration that focus on
the importance of the electron transport chain have changed the name of the
oxidative phosphorylation stage to the electron transport chain.

Figure 31. Oxidative phosphorylation

([Link])

Lactic Acid Fermentation Equation

In lactic acid fermentation, one molecule of glucose is broken down into two
molecules of lactic acid. The chemical energy that was stored in the broken glucose
bonds is moved into bonds between ADP and a phosphate group.
C6H12O6 (glucose) + 2 ADP (depleted ATP) + 2 P i (phosphate groups) → 2
CH3CHOHCOOH (lactic acid) + 2 ATP

Alcoholic Fermentation Equation

Alcohol fermentation is similar to lactic acid fermentation in that oxygen is not the
final electron acceptor. Here, instead of oxygen, the cell uses a converted form
of pyruvate to accept the final electrons. This creates ethyl alcohol, which is what is
found in alcoholic beverages. Brewers and distillers use yeast cells to create this
alcohol, which are very good at this form of fermentation.

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Activity No. 1

Make your own diagram showing the three stages of cellular respiration.

Self-Check
6.2

Answer the given questions:

1. Compare and contrast fermentation as it occurs in human muscle cells

and as it occurs in yeast cells.

2.

Cyanide inhibits cytochrome c oxidase, a component of the electron

transport chain. If cyanide poisoning occurs, would you expect the pH of
the intermembrane space to increase to increase or decrease? What effect
would cyanide have on ATP synthesis?

Activity No. 2

Watch the video on cellular respiration at [Link]

v=hMK1-bgTAtQ

Lesson 6.2 Chloroplast

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Chloroplast is a structure within the cells of plants and green algae that is the site
of photosynthesis, the process by which light energy is converted to chemical
energy, resulting in the production of oxygen and energy-rich organic compounds.
Photosynthetic cyanobacteria are free-living close relatives of chloroplasts;
endosymbiotic theory posits that chloroplasts and mitochondria (energy-producing
organelles in eukaryotic cells) are descended from such organisms.

Figure 32. Parts of a Chloroplast

([Link])

Characteristics of Chloroplasts

Chloroplasts are a type of plastid—a round, oval, or disk-shaped body that is

involved in the synthesis and storage of foodstuffs (Figure 32). Chloroplasts are
distinguished from other types of plastids by their green color, which results from the
presence of two pigments, chlorophyll a and chlorophyll b. A function of those
pigments is to absorb light energy for the process of photosynthesis. Other pigments,
such as carotenoids, are also present in chloroplasts and serve as accessory
pigments, trapping solar energy and passing it to chlorophyll. In plants, chloroplasts
occur in all green tissues, though they are concentrated particularly in
the parenchyma cells of the leaf mesophyll.

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Chloroplasts are roughly 1–2 μm (1 μm = 0.001 mm) thick and 5–7 μm in diameter.
They are enclosed in a chloroplast envelope, which consists of a double membrane
with outer and inner layers, between which is a gap called the intermembrane space.
A third, internal membrane, extensively folded and characterized by the presence of
closed disks (or thylakoids), is known as the thylakoid membrane. In most higher
plants, the thylakoids are arranged in tight stacks called grana (singular granum).
Grana are connected by stromal lamellae, extensions that run from one granum,
through the stroma, into a neighbouring granum. The thylakoid membrane envelops
a central aqueous region known as the thylakoid lumen. The space between the
inner membrane and the thylakoid membrane is filled with stroma, a matrix
containing dissolved enzymes, starch granules, and copies of the chloroplast
genome.

Self- Check
Exercise 2.3

The colors of carotenoid pigments are different from those of

chlorophyll. What do you think is the adaptive advantage of the
presence of these pigments to photosynthetic plants?

Lesson 6.3 Peroxisome

Peroxisome is a membrane-bound organelle occurring in the cytoplasm of

eukaryotic cells. Peroxisomes play a key role in the oxidation of specific
biomolecules. They also contribute to the biosynthesis of membrane lipids known
as plasmalogens. In plant cells, peroxisomes carry out additional functions, including
the recycling of carbon from phosphoglycolate during photorespiration. Specialized
types of peroxisomes have been identified in plants, among them the glyoxysome,
which functions in the conversion of fatty acids to carbohydrates.

Functions of Peroxisomes
Peroxisomes contain at least 50 different enzymes, which are involved in a variety of
biochemical pathways in different types of cells. Peroxisomes originally were defined
as organelles that carry out oxidation reactions leading to the production of hydrogen
peroxide. Because hydrogen peroxide is harmful to the cell, peroxisomes also
contain the enzyme catalase, which decomposes hydrogen peroxide either by

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converting it to water or by using it to oxidize another organic compound. A variety of

substrates are broken down by such oxidative reactions in peroxisomes, including
uric acid, amino acids, and fatty acids. The oxidation of fatty acids (Figure 33) is a
particularly important example, since it provides a major source of metabolic energy.
In animal cells, fatty acids are oxidized in both peroxisomes and mitochondria, but
in yeasts and plants fatty acid oxidation is restricted to peroxisomes.

Figure 33. Peroxisome in plant cell and animal cell

([Link])

Lesson 6.4 Endoplasmic Reticulum

Endoplasmic reticulum (ER), in biology, a continuous membrane system that forms

a series of flattened sacs within the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells and serves multiple
functions, being important particularly in the synthesis, folding, modification, and
transport of proteins . All eukaryotic cells contain an endoplasmic reticulum (ER). In
animal cells, the ER usually constitutes more than half of the membranous content of
the cell. Differences in certain physical and functional characteristics distinguish the
two types of ER, known as rough ER and smooth ER.

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Figure 34. Endoplasmic reticulum

([Link])

Endoplasmic Reticulum
Endoplasmic means inside (endo) the cytoplasm (plasm). Reticulum comes from the
Latin word for net. Basically, an endoplasmic reticulum is a plasma membrane found
inside the cell that folds in on itself to create an internal space known as the lumen.
This lumen is actually continuous with the perinuclear space, so we know the
endoplasmic reticulum is attached to the nuclear envelope. There are actually two
different endoplasmic reticuli in a cell: the smooth endoplasmic reticulum and the
rough endoplasmic reticulum. The rough endoplasmic reticulum is the site of protein
production (where we make our major product - the toy) while the smooth
endoplasmic reticulum is where lipids (fats) are made (accessories for the toy, but
not the central product of the factory).

Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum

The rough endoplasmic reticulum is so-called because its surface is studded with
ribosomes, the molecules in charge of protein production. When a ribosome finds a
specific RNA segment, that segment may tell the ribosome to travel to the rough
endoplasmic reticulum and embed itself. The protein created from this segment will
find itself inside the lumen of the rough endoplasmic reticulum, where it folds and is
tagged with a (usually carbohydrate) molecule in a process known as glycosylation
that marks the protein for transport to the Golgi apparatus. The rough endoplasmic
reticulum is continuous with the nuclear envelope, and looks like a series of canals
near the nucleus. Proteins made in the rough endoplasmic reticulum as destined to
either be a part of a membrane, or to be secreted from the cell membrane out of the
cell. Without an rough endoplasmic reticulum, it would be a lot harder to distinguish
between proteins that should leave the cell, and proteins that should remain. Thus,
the rough endoplasmic reticulum helps cells specialize and allows for greater
complexity in the organism.

Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum

The smooth endoplasmic reticulum makes lipids and steroids, instead of being
involved in protein synthesis. These are fat-based molecules that are important in
energy storage, membrane structure, and communication (steroids can act as
hormones). The smooth endoplasmic reticulum is also responsible for detoxifying the
cell. It is more tubular than the rough endoplasmic reticulum, and is not necessarily
continuous with the nuclear envelope. Every cell has a smooth endoplasmic
reticulum, but the amount will vary with cell function. For example, the liver, which is
responsible for most of the body’s detoxification, has a larger amount of smooth
endoplasmic reticulum.

The rough endoplasmic reticulum (3) is continuous with the nucleus (1) and makes
proteins to be processed by the Golgi apparatus (8), which it is not continuous with.
The smoother endoplasmic reticulum is more tubular than the rough, and is not
studded with ribosomes (Figure 35).

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Figure 34 A diagram showing the structure of the rough endoplasmic reticulum,

the golgi apparatus, and the smooth endoplasmic reticulum.
([Link])

Lesson 6.5 Golgi apparatus (aka Golgi body aka Golgi)

We mentioned the Golgi apparatus earlier when we discussed the production of

proteins in the rough endoplasmic reticulum. If the smooth and rough endoplasmic
reticula are how we make our product, the Golgi is the mailroom that sends our
product to customers . It is responsible for packing proteins from the rough
endoplasmic reticulum into membrane-bound vesicles (tiny compartments of lipid
bilayer that store molecules) which then translocate to the cell membrane. At the cell
membrane, the vesicles can fuse with the larger lipid bilayer, causing the vesicle
contents to either become part of the cell membrane or be released to the outside.
Different molecules actually have different fates upon entering the Golgi. This
determination is done by tagging the proteins with special sugar molecules that act
as a shipping label for the protein. The shipping department identifies the molecule
and sets it on one of 4 paths:
1. Cytosol: the proteins that enter the Golgi by mistake are sent back into the cytosol
(imagine the barcode scanning wrong and the item being returned).
2. Cell membrane: proteins destined for the cell membrane are processed
continuously. Once the vesicle is made, it moves to the cell membrane and fuses
with it. Molecules in this pathway are often protein channels which allow molecules
into or out of the cell, or cell identifiers which project into the extracellular space and
act like a name tag for the cell.

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3. Secretion: some proteins are meant to be secreted from the cell to act on other parts
of the body. Before these vesicles can fuse with the cell membrane, they must
accumulate in number, and require a special chemical signal to be released. This
way shipments only go out if they’re worth the cost of sending them (you generally
wouldn’t ship just one toy and expect to profit).
4. Lysosome: The final destination for proteins coming through the Golgi is the
lysosome. Vesicles sent to this acidic organelle contain enzymes that will hydrolyze
the lysosome’s content.

Lesson 6.6 Membrane Trafficking

Membrane trafficking encompasses the wide variety of processes that go into the
movement of cargo (typically proteins, pathogens and other macromolecules) using
membrane bound transport vesicles. This transport can take place within different
organelles in the same cell, or across the cell membrane to and from the extracellular
environment. Much like a parcel sorting office, the cell uses a complex, highly regulated
system to make sure that the right cargo is delivered to the correct location (Fig. 35).

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Figure 35. Schematic diagram of membrane trafficking

([Link])

Membrane trafficking can be divided into two basic pathways based on the direction of
travel, exocytosis and endocytosis. Exocytosis refers to the movement of cargo to
the plasma membrane or out of the cell. As part of the biosynthetic-secretory pathway,
newly synthesized proteins, lipids or carbohydrates move from the endoplasmic
reticulum (ER) via the Golgi to the cell membrane or extracellular space. Conversely,
endocytosis is the movement of cargo into the cell from the plasma membrane. This can
be often used for the uptake of nutrients which cannot be synthesized by the cell, such
as vitamins, cholesterol and iron. Another important function of the endocytic pathway is
to direct cargo for recycling or degradation via autophagy. The cell can also use large
scale endocytic mechanisms such as phagocytosis and macropinocytosis to internalise
pathogens and external particles in order to maintain an immune response.

Transport vesicles mediate membrane trafficking

Both endocytosis and exocytosis utilize small compartments of membrane to enclose

their cargo. These transport vesicles bud off from one membrane and can dynamically
fuse with other membranes, or split up into smaller vesicles by fission. Residing within
the interior, or lumen, of the transport vesicles, the cargo is protected from the cytoplasm.
As the lumen of transport vesicles is physiologically similar to other membrane bound
organelles and the extracellular space, transfer of cargo does not require movement
across a membrane, simply fusion between vesicles.

Transport vesicles differ from one another in the type of cargo they ferry from one site to
another, the route they take, and the presence or absence of proteins on the cytosolic
surface, which can form a coat. These coat proteins self-assemble on the membrane,
helping to collect and concentrate the vesicle cargo. There are three well-characterized
coat proteins, which coat vesicles at various points during endocytosis and exocytosis.
Clathrin-coated vesicles mediate endocytosis from the plasma membrane to endosomal
compartments and the Golgi. The next steps in endocytosis, namely retrograde transport
within the Golgi and towards the ER, occurs via vesicles surrounded with coat protein
I (COPI). In the opposite direction, COPII vesicles bud off from the ER in the secretory or
exocytic pathway towards the Golgi Caveolae, which are small bulb-shaped plasma
membrane invaginations that mediate endocytosis in a clathrin independent manner,
also possess a less prominent, but definitive, striated coat made up of two protein
complexes-caveolins and cavins. Other clathrin-independent endocytic pathways which
utilize vesicles devoid of coat proteins have been described, mainly, the CLIC/GEEC

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pathway, RhoA-dependent pathway, Arf6-dependent pathway and Flotillin-dependent

pathway.

Once the coated vesicle bud grows and is ready to detach, it has to be separated from
the membrane of origin without loss of cargo. In some cases, the detachment of budded
vesicles from the plasma membrane may be facilitated by the GTPase Dynamin, via
membrane scission. Dynamins associate at the neck of the budding vesicle, and fuse the
two lipid bilayers together in a GTP-dependent process, thereby cutting the neck and
releasing the vesicle from the membrane. In order to bend the membrane to promote or
discourage scission, BAR, N-BAR and F-BAR domain proteins affect membrane
curvature, either promoting or discouraging the likelihood of membrane scission

The cytoskeleton is responsible for moving vesicles throughout the cell. Most vesicles
traffic along microtubules using kinesin or dynein motors, although they can also
use myosin II and Myosin V motors to move along the actin network. In order to
determine the correct location for delivery of cargo, the transport vesicle needs to be able
to recognise a specific target. Members of the Rab small GTPase family are primarily
responsible for providing this specificity. Rab proteins can be expressed on both
transport vesicles and target membranes, providing a further level of
regulation. SNARE proteins dock the transport vesicle at the correct membrane location
and catalyse membrane fusion, the final step in cargo delivery. SNAREs bring the
apposing membranes of the transport vesicle and the target region closely together so
that the lipids from the different bilayers can mix, and this eventually results in fusion, and
the release of cargo.

LOOKING BACK

Review the following concepts:

 Popularly known as the “Powerhouse of the cell,” mitochondria (singular:

mitochondrion) are a double membrane-bound organelle found in most
eukaryotic organisms.

 Oxidative phosphorylation is another term for electron transport chain

 Endoplasmic reticulum (ER), is a continuous membrane system that forms a

series of flattened sacs within the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells and serves
multiple functions, being important particularly in the synthesis, folding,
modification, and transport of proteins .

 Membrane trafficking encompasses the wide variety of processes that go into the
movement of cargo (typically proteins, pathogens and other macromolecules) using
membrane bound transport vesicles.

 Chloroplast is a structure within the cells of plants and green algae that is the
site of photosynthesis, the process by which light energy is converted

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to chemical energy, resulting in the production of oxygen and energy-

rich organic compounds.

 The smooth endoplasmic reticulum makes lipids and steroids

Post test

Multiple Choice. Encircle the letter of the best answer.

1. Secretory cells that release relatively large quantities of glycoproteins contain

relatively large amounts of which of the following?
a. Rough endoplasmic reticulum
b. Smooth endoplasmic reticulum
c. Golgi apparatus
d. Mitochondria

2. Which cells in our body contains abundant peroxisomes?

a. Liver cells
b. Reproductive cells
c. Cardiac cells
d. Brain cells

3. The functions of Golgi apparatus include all except

a. Sorting center of the cell
b. Involved in post translational modification
c. Involved in secretory protein synthesis
d. Involved in cell plate formation

4. Which of the following biomolecules are not synthesized by the endoplasmic

reticulum?
a. Proteins
b. Lipids
c. Nucleic acids
d. Cholesterol

5. Which of the following statements about glycolysis is correct?

a. In most types of cells, glycolysis occurs only in the cytosol.
b. Glycolysis splits glycogen into two molecules of pyruvate that enter the
mitochondrion.
c. Glycolysis, like the tricarboxylic acid cycle, produces ATP
d. One turn of the tricarboxylic acid cycle produces three molecules of
FADH2 and of NADH.

6. Which statement regarding cellular respiration is correct?

a. Cellular respiration in plants occurs only during the day.
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b. All living organisms carry out some form of cellular respiration.

c. Fungi and bacteria carry out aerobic cellular respiration only.
d. Only plants and animals use glucose and oxygen for cellular respiration.

7. Which of the following statements is not true of energy production in cells?

a. Cells release large amounts of energy in the form of heat.
b. ATP is the primary form of energy for the cell.
c. Energy is released when ATP is converted to ADP.
d. In cells, energy is released in small, controlled amounts

8. A green plant is kept in a brightly lighted area for 48 hours. What will most likely
occur if thelight intensity is then reduced slightly during the next 48 hours?
a. The rate at which nitrogen is used by the plant will increase.
b. Photosynthesis will stop completely.
c. The rate at which oxygen is released from the plant will decrease.
d. Glucose production inside each plant cell will increase.

9. During what stage of photosynthesis is O2 produced?

a. cyclic photophosphorylation
b. the light-dependent reactions involving photosystems I and II
c. carbon fixation
d. the Krebs cycle

10. During what stage of photosynthesis are ATP and NADPH converted to ADP +
Pi and NADP+?
a. the light-dependent reactions
b. the light-independent reactions
c. the light-independent reactions
d. none of the above

References

Karp, G. Karp, G.( 2013) Cell and Molecular Biology, Wiley and Sons

Pollard, T.D. and Earnshaw, W.C. 2008. Cell Biology. Saunders Elsevier, USA

Raven, J. 2018. Biology. McGraw Hill. USA.

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