Module 3

Angle Modulation
T Y P E S O F A N A L O G M O D U L AT I O N
 A N G L E M O D U L AT I O N
• Angle Modulation is the process of varying angle of the high frequency
carrier signal inaccordance with the instantaneous amplitude of the low
frequency message signal
• Amplitude of the carrier signal is maintained constant even after modulation
[FM and PM are constant envelope modulation schemes].
• Advantages:
• Improved SNR
• Noise immunity
• Improved system fidelity [faithful reproduction of the original signal].
• Efficient use of transmitted power
Why AM is linear and FM is non-linear?
• Disadvantages:
• High bandwidth
• Less coverage area {FM stations operate at 88-108 MHz as compared to AM stations
between 550 – 1650 kHz}. High frequency EM waves suffer more attenuation/path loss.
• Transmitting and receiving circuits are complex
Types of Angle modulation
 Definition of angle Modulation
• Angle – Frequency and phase

• The angle modulated wave is mathematically expressed as

s(t) = Ac cos[i (t)] − − − − − (1)
• AC - Amplitude of the carrier signal
• θi(t) – Angle of modulated sinusoidal carrier

• If θi(t) increases monotonically with time over an interval range from t to

(t+Δt), the average frequency is given as
 i (t + t) − i (t)
f f (t) = − − − − − (2)
2t
 Definition of angle Modulation
• The instantaneous frequency of the angle modulated signal is
1 di (t)
f i (t) = − − − − − (3)
2 dt
• The angle modulated signal is interpreted as a rotating phasor of length
Ac and angle θi(t)

• The angular velocity of phasor is dθi(t)/dt rad/s

• The angle θi(t) of an unmodulated carrier is

i (t) = 2f ct + c − − − − − (4)

• The corresponding phasor rotates with a constant angular velocity of

2πfc and the constant Фc is the value of θi(t) at t=0
 Phase Modulation (PM)
• Phase Modulation is the process of varying phase angle of the high
frequency carrier signal inaccordance with the instantaneous amplitude
of the low frequency message signal

• θi(t) is varied linearly with respect to the message signal m(t)

i (t) = 2f ct + k p m(t) − − − − − (5)
• Where kp is the phase sensitivity of the modulator (rad/v)

• The phase modulated signal is given as

 Phase Modulation (PM)
• Phase Modulation is the process of varying phase angle of the high
frequency carrier signal inaccordance with the instantaneous amplitude
of the low frequency message signal

• θi(t) is varied linearly with respect to the message signal m(t)

i (t) = 2f ct + k p m(t) − − − − − (5)
• Where kp is the phase sensitivity of the modulator (rad/v)

• The phase modulated signal is given as

s(t) = Ac cos[2f c t + k p m(t)] − − − − − (6)
 Phase Modulation (PM)
• Phase Modulation is the process of varying phase angle of the high
frequency carrier signal inaccordance with the instantaneous amplitude
of the low frequency message signal

• θi(t) is varied linearly with respect to the message signal m(t)

i (t) = 2f ct + k p m(t) − − − − − (5)
• Where kp is the phase sensitivity of the modulator (rad/v)

• The phase modulated signal is given as

s(t) = Ac cos[2f c t + k p m(t)] − − − − − (6)

s(t) = Ac cos[2f c t + m p cos mt] − − − − − (7)

• Modulation index(mp) or Phase deviation(Δθ) m p =k p Am (rad )
 Frequency Modulation (FM)
• Frequency Modulation is the process of varying frequency of the high
frequency carrier signal inaccordance with the instantaneous amplitude
of the low frequency message signal

• fi(t) is varied linearly with respect to the message signal m(t)

f i (t) = f c + k f m(t) − − − − − (8)
• Where kf is the frequency sensitivity of the modulator (Hz/v)
 Frequency Modulation (FM)
• Frequency Modulation is the process of varying frequency of the high
frequency carrier signal inaccordance with the instantaneous amplitude
of the low frequency message signal

• fi(t) is varied linearly with respect to the message signal m(t)

f i (t) = f c + k f m(t) − − − − − (8)
• Where kf is the frequency sensitivity of the modulator (Hz/v)

• Integrating Eq.(8) w.r.t to time and multiplying the result by 2π, we get
i (t) = 2   f i (t)dt
 Frequency Modulation (FM)
• Frequency Modulation is the process of varying frequency of the high
frequency carrier signal inaccordance with the instantaneous amplitude
of the low frequency message signal
• fi(t) is varied linearly with respect to the message signal m(t)
f i (t) = f c + k f m(t) − − − − − (8)
• Where kf is the frequency sensitivity of the modulator (Hz/v)
• Integrating Eq.(8) w.r.t to time and multiplying the result by 2π, we get
i (t) = 2   f i (t)dt
t

i (t) = 2f ct + 2k f  m( )d − − − − − (9)

0
• The frequency modulated signal in time domain is given as
 Frequency Modulation (FM)
• Frequency Modulation is the process of varying frequency of the high
frequency carrier signal inaccordance with the instantaneous amplitude
of the low frequency message signal
• fi(t) is varied linearly with respect to the message signal m(t)
f i (t) = f c + k f m(t) − − − − − (8)
• Where kf is the frequency sensitivity of the modulator (Hz/v)
• Integrating Eq.(8) w.r.t to time and multiplying the result by 2π, we get
i (t) = 2   f i (t)dt
t

i (t) = 2f ct + 2k f  m( )d − − − − − (9)

0
• The frequency modulated signal in time domain is given as
t

s(t) = Ac cos[2f c t + 2k f  m( )d ] − − − − − (10)

0
 Frequency modulation by single frequency message
signal
• The frequency modulated signal in time domain is given as
t

s(t) = Ac cos[2f c t + 2k f  m( )d ] − − − − − (1)

0

• The above equation is nonlinear function of message signal

• The analysis of FM signal is much more difficult than AM signal
• Consider a sinusoidal message signal defined as
 Frequency modulation by single frequency message
signal
• The frequency modulated signal in time domain is given as
t

s(t) = Ac cos[2f c t + 2k f  m( )d ] − − − − − (1)

0

• The above equation is nonlinear function of message signal

• The analysis of FM signal is much more difficult than AM signal
• Consider a sinusoidal message signal defined as
m(t) = Am cos 2f mt − − − − − (2)
• The instantaneous frequency of the FM signal is given as
 Frequency modulation by single frequency message
signal
• The frequency modulated signal in time domain is given as
t

s(t) = Ac cos[2f c t + 2k f  m( )d ] − − − − − (1)

0

• The above equation is nonlinear function of message signal

• The analysis of FM signal is much more difficult than AM signal
• Consider a sinusoidal message signal defined as
m(t) = Am cos 2f mt − − − − − (2)
• The instantaneous frequency of the FM signal is given as
f i (t) = f c + k f Am cos 2f mt
f i (t) = f c + f cos 2f m t − − − − − (3)
FrequencyDeviation f = k f Am (Hz)
 Frequency modulation by single frequency message
signal
• Using Eq.(3), the angle θi(t) of the FM signal is given as
 Frequency modulation by single frequency message
signal
• Using Eq.(3), the angle θi(t) of the FM signal is given as
i (t) = 2   f i (t)dt
 Frequency modulation by single frequency message
signal
• Using Eq.(3), the angle θi(t) of the FM signal is given as
i (t) = 2   f i (t)dt

i (t) = 2f ct + f sin 2f mt − − − − − (4)

fm
 Frequency modulation by single frequency message
signal
• Using Eq.(3), the angle θi(t) of the FM signal is given as
i (t) = 2   f i (t)dt
f
i (t) = 2f ct + sin 2f mt − − − − − (4)
fm
• The modulation index is defined as
 = f
fm
i (t) = 2f ct +  sin 2f mt − − − − − (5)
• The FM signal is given as
 Frequency modulation by single frequency message
signal
• Using Eq.(3), the angle θi(t) of the FM signal is given as
i (t) = 2   f i (t)dt
f
i (t) = 2f ct + sin 2f mt − − − − − (4)
fm
• The modulation index is defined as
 = f
fm
i (t) = 2f ct +  sin 2f mt − − − − − (5)
• The FM signal is given as
VFM (t) = Ac cos[2f ct +  sin 2f mt] − − − − − (6)
Generation of FM using phase modulator
Generation of PM using frequency modulator
Deviation ratio and Percentage Modulation
WAVEFORM O F F M A N D P M SIGNAL
In an FM system when the AF is 500Hz and the AF voltage is 2.4 V, the
deviation is 4.8 KHz. If the AF voltage is now increased to 7.2 V, what is
the new deviation? .If the AF voltage is raised to 10 V, while the AF is
dropped to 200 Hz, what is the deviation? Find the modulation index in
each case.

When Am= 10V, Δf= 2 X 10 = 20 kHz.

Note that the change in modulating frequency made no difference to the
deviation since it is independent of the modulating frequency.

So modulation indices
β1 = Δf1/fm1 = 4.8/0.5 = 9.6

β2 = Δf2/fm1 = 14.4/0.5 = 28.8

β3 = Δf3/fm2 = 20/0.2 = 100

The modulating frequency change have to be taken into account in the
modulation index calculation.
Deviation ratio and Percentage Modulation
 Types of FM
• Narrow Band FM (NBFM)

• Modulation index is small (β<<1)

• Frequency deviation is small( ≈ 20 Hz)

• Wide Band FM (WBFM)

• Modulation index is large (β>>1)

• Frequency deviation is large ( ≈ 75 kHz)
 Narrow Band FM
• The FM signal is defined as
s(t) = Ac cos[2f ct +  sin 2f mt] − − − − − (1)
• Expanding Eq.(1), we get (cos(a+b)=cosacosb-sinasinb)
 Narrow Band FM
• The FM signal is defined as
s(t) = Ac cos[2f ct +  sin 2f mt] − − − − − (1)
• Expanding Eq.(1), we get
s(t) = Ac cos 2fct cos[ sin 2fmt] − Ac sin 2fct sin[ sin 2fmt] − − − −(2)
• As modulation index β is small, we may use the following
approximations:
 Narrow Band FM
• The FM signal is defined as
s(t) = Ac cos[2f ct +  sin 2f mt] − − − − − (1)
• Expanding Eq.(1), we get
s(t) = Ac cos 2fct cos[ sin 2fmt] − Ac sin 2fct sin[ sin 2fmt] − − − −(2)
• As modulation index β is small, we may use the following
approximations: cos[ sin 2f t]  1
m
sin[ sin 2f mt]   sin 2f mt
• Now Eq.(2) becomes
 Narrow Band FM
• The FM signal is defined as
s(t) = Ac cos[2f ct +  sin 2f mt] − − − − − (1)
• Expanding Eq.(1), we get
s(t) = Ac cos 2fct cos[ sin 2fmt] − Ac sin 2fct sin[ sin 2fmt] − − − −(2)
• As modulation index β is small, we may use the following
approximations: cos[ sin 2f t]  1
m
sin[ sin 2f mt]   sin 2f mt
• Now Eq.(2) becomes
s(t) = Ac cos 2fct − Ac sin 2fct sin 2fmt − − − −(3)
• Eq.(3) defines the approximate form of NBFM signal produced by
sinusoidal message signal
 Narrow Band FM
• Expanding Eq.(3), we get
1
s(t) = Ac cos 2f ct + Ac{cos[2 ( f c + f m )t ]− cos[2 ( fc − f m )t]} − − −(4)
2
 Narrow Band FM
• Expanding Eq.(3), we get
1
s(t) = Ac cos 2f ct + Ac{cos[2 ( f c + f m )t] − cos[2 ( fc − f m )t]} − − −(4)
2
• The above equation is somewhat similar to AM signal
1
s(t) = Ac cos 2f ct + mAc{cos[2 ( f c + f m )t ]+ cos[2 ( fc − f m )t]} − − −(5)
2
 Narrow Band FM
• Expanding Eq.(3), we get
1
s(t) = Ac cos 2f ct + Ac{cos[2 ( f c + f m )t] − cos[2 ( fc − f m )t]} − − −(4)
2
• The above equation is somewhat similar to AM signal
1
s(t) = Ac cos 2f ct + mAc{cos[2 ( f c + f m )t] + cos[2 ( fc − f m )t]} − − −(5)
2
• The difference between the two signals is the algebric sign of the lower
side frequency in the narrow band FM is reversed

• The NBFM signal requires the same transmission bandwidth of the AM

signal (2fm)
Phasor diagram of NBFM and AM
 Phasor diagram of NBFM and AM

• In NBFM, the resultant phasor has same amplitude of the carrier

phasor but out of phase w.r.t it

• In AM, the resultant phasor has different amplitude of the carrier phasor
but always inphase w.r.t it
 Narrow Band FM

• Ideally FM signal contains constant envelope

• But here the FM signal produced differs from ideal condition
• The envelope contains a residual amplitude modulation and varies in time
• For a sinusoidal message signal, the angle θi(t) contains harmonic distortion in
the form of third and higher harmonics of fm
• By restricting   0.3 , the effect of residual AM and harmonic distortion
can be limited to negligible levels
 Wide Band FM
• The FM signal is defined as
s(t) = Ac cos[2f ct +  sin 2f mt] − − − − − (1)
• Eq.(1) is non-periodic unless the carrier signal frequency fc is an
integral multiple of the message signal frequency fm
• Assume the carrier signal frequency fc is large
• Rewriting Eq.(1) by using complex representation of band-pass signals,
we get
 Wide Band FM
• The FM signal is defined as
s(t) = Ac cos[2f ct +  sin 2f mt] − − − − − (1)
• Eq.(1) is non-periodic unless the carrier signal frequency fc is an
integral multiple of the message signal frequency fm
• Assume the carrier signal frequency fc is large
• Rewriting Eq.(1) by using complex representation of band-pass signals,
we get s(t) = Re[ Ac exp( j2f ct + j sin 2f mt)]
 Wide Band FM
• The FM signal is defined as
s(t) = Ac cos[2f ct +  sin 2f mt] − − − − − (1)
• Eq.(1) is non-periodic unless the carrier signal frequency fc is an
integral multiple of the message signal frequency fm
• Assume the carrier signal frequency fc is large
• Rewriting Eq.(1) by using complex representation of band-pass signals,
we get s(t) = Re[ Ac exp( j2f ct + j sin 2f mt)]
s(t) = Re[~s (t) exp( j2f ct)] − − − −(2)
• where ~s(t) is the complex envelope of the FM signal defined as
 Wide Band FM
• The FM signal is defined as
s(t) = Ac cos[2f ct +  sin 2f mt] − − − − − (1)
• Eq.(1) is non-periodic unless the carrier signal frequency fc is an
integral multiple of the message signal frequency fm
• Assume the carrier signal frequency fc is large
• Rewriting Eq.(1) by using complex representation of band-pass signals,
we get s(t) = Re[ Ac exp( j2f ct + j sin 2f mt)]
s(t) = Re[~s (t) exp( j2f ct)] − − − −(2)
• where ~s(t) is the complex envelope of the FM signal defined as
~
s (t) = A exp[ j sin 2f t] − − − −(3)
c m

• ~s (t) is a periodic function of time with fundamental frequency f m

Wide Band FM
 Wide Band FM
~
s (t) = A exp[ j sin 2f t] − − − −(3)
c m

• Expand ~s(t) in the form of complex Fourier series is given as


~s(t) =
c
n=−
n exp[ j2nf mt] − − − −(4)

• Cn – Complex Fourier coefficient

 Wide Band FM
~
s (t) = A exp[ j sin 2f t] − − − −(3)
c m

• Expand ~s(t) in the form of complex Fourier series is given as


~s(t) =
c
n=−
n exp[ j2nf mt] − − − −(4)

• Cn – Complex Fourier coefficient

1
2 fm
~
cn = f m  s (t) exp(− j2nf mt)dt − − − −(5)
1
−
2 fm

• Sub Eq.(3) in Eq.(5)

 Wide Band FM
~
s (t) = A exp[ j sin 2f t] − − − −(3)
c m

• Expand ~s(t) in the form of complex Fourier series is given as


~s(t) =
c
n=−
n exp[ j2nf mt] − − − −(4)

• Cn – Complex Fourier coefficient

1
2 fm
~
cn = f m  s (t) exp(− j2nf mt)dt − − − −(5)
1
−
2 fm

• Sub Eq.(3) in Eq.(5)

1
2 fm

cn = Ac f m  exp( j sin 2f

1
m t − j2nf mt)dt − − − −(6)
−
2 fm
 Wide Band FM
• Define a new variable, x = 2fmt,
dx = 2f m dt
• Now the limits become
 Wide Band FM
• Define a new variable, x = 2fmt,
dx = 2f m dt
• Now the limits become
1
when t=− , x = − ,
2 fm
1
when t= ,x =
2 fm
• Rewrite Eq.(6),
 Wide Band FM
• Define a new variable, x = 2fmt,
dx = 2f m dt
• Now the limits become
1
when t=− , x = − ,
2 fm
1
when t= ,x =
2 fm
• Rewrite Eq.(6),

Ac
cn =
2  exp[ j( sin x − nx)]dx − − − −(7)
−

• The integral on the right side of the equation except the scaling factor is
recognized as nth order Bessel function of the 1st kind and argument β.
This function is defined by Jn(β)
 Wide Band FM

1
J n ( ) =
2  exp[ j( sin x − nx)]dx − − − −(8)
−

• Now Eq.(7) is reduced to

 Wide Band FM

1
J n ( ) =
2  exp[ j( sin x − nx)]dx − − − −(8)
−

• Now Eq.(7) is reduced to

cn = Ac J n (  ) − − − −(9)
• Sub Eq.(9) in Eq.(4)
 Wide Band FM

1
J n ( ) =
2  exp[ j( sin x − nx)]dx − − − −(8)
−

• Now Eq.(7) is reduced to

cn = Ac J n (  ) − − − −(9)
• Sub Eq.(9) in Eq.(4)
~ J n (  ) exp[ j2nf mt] − − − −(10)

s (t) = Ac

n=−
• Sub Eq.(10) in Eq.(2)
 Wide Band FM

1
J n ( ) =
2  exp[ j( sin x − nx)]dx − − − −(8)
−

• Now Eq.(7) is reduced to

cn = Ac J n (  ) − − − −(9)
• Sub Eq.(9) in Eq.(4)
~ 
s (t) = Ac J n (  ) exp[ j2nf mt] − − − −(10)

n=−
• Sub Eq.(10) in Eq.(2)

s(t) = Ac .Re[  J n (  ) exp[ j2 ( f c + nf m )t] − − − −(11)
n=−

• Interchanging the order of the summation and evaluation of the real

part in the R.H.S,
 Wide Band FM

s(t) = Ac J n (  ) cos[2 ( f c + nf m )t] − − − −(12)
n=−

• Eq.(12) is the Fourier series representation of the single tone FM signal

for an arbitrary value of β

• By taking Fourier transform, Eq.(12) becomes

 Wide Band FM

s(t) = Ac J n (  ) cos[2 ( f c + nf m )t] − − − −(12)
n=−

• Eq.(12) is the Fourier series representation of the single tone FM signal

for an arbitrary value of β

• By taking Fourier transform, Eq.(12) becomes


Ac
S( f ) =
2
J n (  )[ ( f − f c − nf m ) +  ( f + f c + nf m )] − − − −(13)
n=−

Put 𝑛 = 0,
𝐴c
⟹𝑠 𝑓 = 𝐽0  𝛿 𝑓 —𝑓c + 𝛿 𝑓 + 𝑓c
2
 Wide Band FM
Spectrum of WBFM:
Put 𝑛 = 1,
𝐴c
𝑠 𝑓 = 𝛿 𝑓 — 𝑓c + 𝑛𝑓m + 𝛿 𝑓 + 𝑓c + 𝑛𝑓m
2 1 β
𝐽

Put 𝑛 = —1,
𝐴c
𝑠 𝑓 = 𝐽– 1 β 𝛿 𝑓 — 𝑓c + 𝑛𝑓m + 𝛿 𝑓 + 𝑓c + 𝑛𝑓m
2

𝑠 (𝑓)
𝐴c 𝐴c
𝐽 β 𝐽 β
2 0 2 0
𝐴c 𝐴c 𝐴c 𝐴c
β 𝐽 β 𝐽 β 𝐽 β
2 𝐽 –1 2 1 2 –1 2 1

− fc − fm − fc − fm + fm 0 fc − fm fc fc + fm → f
Bessel function Jn(β) vs Modulation index β
 Properties of Bessel function Jn(β)
1. J n (  ) = (−1) n J − n (  )
for all values of n both positive and negative

2. For small values of β

J 0 ( )  1

J1 (  ) 

2
J n (  )  0, n  2

3.  n ( ) = 1
J 2

n=−
Bessel table (n vs β)
 Observations from Bessel function analysis
• The spectrum of FM signal consists of a carrier component and an
infinite set of side frequencies locate symmetrically on either side of the
carrier at frequency separations of fm, 2fm, 3fm,…..

𝑠 (𝑓)
𝐴c 𝐴c
𝐽 β 𝐽 β
2 0 2 0
𝐴c 𝐴c 𝐴c 𝐴c
β 𝐽 β 𝐽 β 𝐽 β
2 𝐽 –1 2 1 2 –1 2 1

− fc − fm − fc − fm + fm 0 fc − fm fc fc + fm → f
 Observations from Bessel function analysis
• The spectrum of FM signal consists of a carrier component and an
infinite set of side frequencies locate symmetrically on either side of the
carrier at frequency separations of fm, 2fm, 3fm,…..
• For small values of β less than unity, only the Bessel coefficients J0(β)
and J1(β) have significant values – Carrier and single pair of side
frequencies fc+/-fm – NBFM

𝑠 (𝑓)
𝐴c 𝐴c
𝐽 β 𝐽 β
2 0 2 0
𝐴c 𝐴c 𝐴c 𝐴c
β 𝐽 β 𝐽 β 𝐽 β
2 𝐽 –1 2 1 2 –1 2 1

− fc − fm − fc − fm + fm 0 fc − fm fc fc + fm → f
 Observations from Bessel function analysis
• Unlike AM, the amplitude of the carrier component varies with β. The
average power of the FM signal can be determined as
1 2  2
P = Ac  J n (  )
2 n=−
1 2
P = Ac
2
𝑠 (𝑓)
𝐴c 𝐴c
𝐽 β 𝐽 β
2 0 2 0
𝐴c 𝐴c 𝐴c 𝐴c
β 𝐽 β 𝐽 β 𝐽 β
2 𝐽 –1 2 1 2 –1 2 1

− fc − fm − fc − fm + fm 0 fc − fm fc fc + fm → f
 Observations from Bessel function analysis
• Unlike AM, the amplitude of the carrier component varies with β. The
average power of the FM signal can be determined as
1 2  2
P = Ac  J n (  )
2 n=−
1 2
P = Ac
2
𝐴C 2 2
Sideband power, 𝑃SB = 𝐽1 β + ⋯ + 𝐽n 2 β + 𝐽 –1 2 β + ⋯ + 𝐽 –n 2 β
2
𝐴C 2 2 2 2
2
= 2 𝐽1 β + ⋯ + 𝐽n β = 𝐴C 𝐽12 β + ⋯ + 𝐽n β
2

Total modulated power, 𝑃T = 𝑃C + 𝑃SB

 Transmission bandwidth of FM signals

• Theoretically, an FM signal consists of infinite number of side

frequencies so the bandwidth required to transmit such signals is
infinite

• Practically, the FM signal is limited to finite number of side frequencies

with specified amount of distortion
 Carson’s rule
• Carson rule gives the approximate value of transmission bandwidth of
FM signal irrespective of the modulation index
1
BT  2f + 2 f m = 2f (1+ )

 Transmission bandwidth of FM signals
Bandwidth in WBFM:
• WBFM contain  sidebands (spectral components).
• Max. theoretical bandwidth in WBFM =  (Max. Practical BW = 200 KHz
with 20 KHz guardbands).
• In WBFM, carrier power 𝑃C and sideband power 𝑃SB are dependent on
modulation index β.
• In WBFM, only significant sidebands are transmitted.
• A significant side band have amplitude  1% of unmodulated carrier
amplitude.
𝑆𝑓 𝐴c
𝐽
2 0β

1% of A c 𝐽0 β
⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ 2

—𝑓c 𝑓c →𝑓
 Universal curve for evaluating the 1% bandwidth of FM wave
• Carlson’s rule is simple to use, but it does not always provide a good estimate
of the bandwidth

• Define the transmission bandwidth as up to the band which is greater than

1% of the carrier amplitude.

• The transmission bandwidth is defined as

BT = 2nmax f m

• nmax is the largest value of n that satisfies |Jn(β)>0.01|

• The value of n varies with the modulation index and can be determined
from the tabulated values of Bessel function
Universal curve for evaluating the 1% bandwidth of FM wave

Bandwidth in WBFM:
1% Bandwidth:
In this method of BW measurement, the no. of spectral components included
in WBFM signal is such that the amplitude of last spectral components is at
least 1% amplitude of the carrier signal.

𝐴c
𝐽
2 0β

1% of A c 𝐽0 β
⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ 2

1% BW

• The transmission bandwidth is defined as

BT = 2nmax f m
Universal curve for evaluating the 1% bandwidth of FM wave

Bandwidth in WBFM:
1% Bandwidth:
In this method of BW measurement, the no. of spectral components included in WBFM
signal is such that the amplitude of last spectral components is at least 1% amplitude of
the carrier signal.
Bessel table (n vs β)
Universal curve for evaluating the 1% bandwidth of FM wave
Using the table in the previous page, we can draw the universal curve
which normalizes the bandwidth with respect to the frequency deviation.
 Deviation ratio and Percentage modulation
• Deviation ratio is defined as the ratio of the maximum frequency
deviation Δf to the maximum modulating signal frequency fm

fmax
D=
f mmax

• Percentage modulation is defined as the ratio of the actual frequency

deviation Δfact to the maximum frequency deviation Δfmax.

f actual
% mod ulation =
fmax
 Problems
• (a). Determine the peak frequency deviation and modulation index for
the FM modulator with a deviation sensitivity 5 KHz/V and a modulating
signal Vm(t)=2cos(2πХ2000t)
• (b). Determine the peak phase deviation and modulation index for the
FM modulator with a deviation sensitivity 2.5 rad/V and a modulating
signal Vm(t)=2cos(2πХ2000t)
 Problems
• (a). Determine the peak frequency deviation and modulation index for
the FM modulator with a deviation sensitivity 5 KHz/V and a modulating
signal Vm(t)=2cos(2πХ2000t)
• (b). Determine the peak phase deviation for the FM modulator with a
deviation sensitivity 2.5 rad/V and a modulating signal
Vm(t)=2cos(2πХ2000t)

f = k f vm = 10KHz  = k p v m = 5rad

f
= =
fm
 Problems
• An FM wave is represented by the equation
6 4
VFM (t) = 10sin[810 t + 6sin 310 t]

• Calculate the modulating frequency, carrier frequency, modulation index,

frequency deviation
 Problems
• An FM wave is represented by the equation
6 4
VFM (t) = 10sin[810 t + 6sin 310 t]
• Calculate the modulating frequency, carrier frequency, modulation index,
frequency deviation
• Comparing with the standard FM equation

VFM (t) = Ac cos[2f ct +  sin 2f mt]

f m = 4.77KHz

f c = 1.27MHz

 =6
f = 28.62KHz
 Problems
• A sinusoidal modulating waveform of amplitude 5 V and a frequency of 2
KHz is applied to FM generator, which has a frequency sensitivity of 40
Hz/volt. Calculate the frequency deviation, modulation index, and
bandwidth.
 Problems
• A sinusoidal modulating waveform of amplitude 5 V and a frequency of 2
KHz is applied to FM generator, which has a frequency sensitivity of 40
Hz/volt. Calculate the frequency deviation, modulation index, and
bandwidth.
f = k f vm = 200Hz
f
= = 0.1
fm

NBFM , BW = 2 f m = 4KHz
 Problems
• An FM wave is represented by the equation

VFM (t) = 20cos[8 106 t + 9sin 2 103 t]

• Calculate the frequency deviation, bandwidth and power

 Problems
• An FM wave is represented by the equation

VFM (t) = 20 cos[8 106 t + 9 sin 2 103 t]

• Calculate the frequency deviation, bandwidth and the average power

f = fm = 9KHz

BW = 2(f + f m ) = 20KHz
Vc2
P= = 200W
2R
 Problems
• In India, the maximum value of frequency deviation is fixed at 75 KHz for
commercial FM broadcasting by radio. If we take modulating frequency
is 15 KHz, which is typically the maximum audio frequency of interest in
FM transmission, find the deviation ratio and compare the bandwidth
obtained using Carson rule and universal curve method.
 Problems
• In India, the maximum value of frequency deviation is fixed at 75 KHz for
commercial FM broadcasting by radio. If we take modulating frequency
is 15 KHz, which is typically the maximum audio frequency of interest in
FM transmission, find the deviation ratio and compare the bandwidth
obtained using Carson rule and universal curve method.
fmax
D= =5
f m max
BT  2f + 2 f m = 180KHz

BT = 2nmax fm = 16 * 15 KHz = 240 KHz

• The typical bandwidth required is 200 KHz for each FM transmitter. So,
Carson rule underestimates the bandwidth by 10%
Bessel table (n vs β)
 Generation of FM signal

• Indirect method – Modulating wave is first used to produce NBFM

signal and frequency multiplication is used to increase the frequency
deviation to desired level
• Direct method – Carrier frequency is directly varied in accordance with
the input baseband signal
Direct FM
 Varactor diode modulator
• Direct method for FM signal generation
• Carrier signal frequency is directly varied in accordance with the input
baseband signal using Voltage Controlled Oscillator (VCO)
• Capacitor or inductor of the oscillator tank circuit is varied according to
the amplitude of the message signal
 Varactor diode modulator
• Varactor or Varicap means variable capacitor diode
• Specially fabricated PN junction diode used as a variable capacitor in
reverse biased condition
• Varactor diode is used to produce a variable reactance and it is placed
across the tank circuit
 Circuit operation

• Capacitor c isolates the varactor diode from the oscillator

• The effective bias to varicap is given as
 Circuit operation

• Capacitor c isolates the varactor diode form the oscillator

• The effective bias to varicap is given as
Vd = V0 +Vm cos mt − − − − − (1)
 Circuit operation

• Capacitor c isolates the varactor diode form the oscillator

• The effective bias to varicap is given as
Vd = V0 +Vm cos mt − − − − − (1)
• Increase in the modulating signal amplitude results in the increase in
the carrier frequency
 Circuit operation
• The capacitance of the diode is given as
k
Cd = − − − − − (2)
Vd
• k – Proportionality constant
• Vd – Total voltage across the diode in reverse bias condition
 Circuit operation
• The capacitance of the diode is given as
k
Cd = − − − − − (2)
Vd
• k – Proportionality constant
• Vd – Total voltage across the diode in reverse bias condition
• The total capacitance of the tank circuit is C0 + Cd
• The instantaneous frequency of oscillation is given as
 Circuit operation
• The capacitance of the diode is given as
k
Cd = − − − − − (2)
Vd
• k – Proportionality constant
• Vd – Total voltage across the diode in reverse bias condition
• The total capacitance of the tank circuit is C0 + Cd
• The instantaneous frequency of oscillation is given as
1
fi =
2 L(C0 + Cd )
 Circuit operation
• The capacitance of the diode is given as
k
Cd = − − − − − (2)
Vd
• k – Proportionality constant
• Vd – Total voltage across the diode in reverse bias condition
• The total capacitance of the tank circuit is C0 + Cd
• The instantaneous frequency of oscillation is given as
1
fi =
2 L(C0 + Cd )
1
fi =
2 L(C0 + kVd−1/ 2 )
• The oscillator frequency depends on message signal
 Reactance tube modulator

Ib  Id

X c  R

• Direct method for FM signal generation

• FET reactance modulator behaves as reactance across terminal AB
• The terminal AB is connected across the tuned circuit of the oscillator
• The varying voltage of the message signal changes the reactance
across the terminals
• The change in reactance can be inductive or capacitive
Indirect FM
Armstrong method
 Armstrong method

• The message signal is integrated and used to phase modulate a

crystal controlled oscillator
• In order to minimize the distortion, phase deviation or modulation index
is kept small (β<0.3)
• The NBFM signal is multiplied in frequency using frequency multiplier
to produce to WBFM signal
 Armstrong method
• Let s1(t) denotes the output of the phase modulator
 Armstrong method
• Let s1(t) denotes the output of the phase modulator
t

s1 (t) = Ac cos[2f1t + 2k f  m(t)dt] − − − − − (1)

0
 Armstrong method
• Let s1(t) denotes the output of the phase modulator
t

s1 (t) = Ac cos[2f1t + 2k f  m(t)dt] − − − − − (1)

0

• f1 – Frequency of the crystal controlled oscillator

• kf – Frequency sensitivity (constant)
• For a sinusoidal modulating wave, the output s1(t) is given as
 Armstrong method
• Let s1(t) denotes the output of the phase modulator
t

s1 (t) = Ac cos[2f1t + 2k f  m(t)dt] − − − − − (1)

0

• f1 – Frequency of the crystal controlled oscillator

• kf – Frequency sensitivity (constant)
• For a sinusoidal modulating wave, the output s1(t) is given as
s1 (t) = Ac cos[2f1t + 1 sin 2fmt] − − − − − (2)
• The phase modulator output is multiplied ‘n’ times in frequency by
using frequency multiplier to produce the desired WBFM wave
 Armstrong method
• Let s1(t) denotes the output of the phase modulator
t

s1 (t) = Ac cos[2f1t + 2k f  m(t)dt] − − − − − (1)

0

• f1 – Frequency of the crystal controlled oscillator

• kf – Frequency sensitivity (constant)
• For a sinusoidal modulating wave, the output s1(t) is given as
s1 (t) = Ac cos[2f1t + 1 sin 2fmt] − − − − − (2)
• The phase modulator output is multiplied ‘n’ times in frequency by
using frequency multiplier to produce the desired WBFM wave
s(t) = Ac cos[2nf1t + n1 sin 2f mt] − − − − − (3)
 Armstrong method
• In case of sinusoidal modulating wave
 Armstrong method
• In case of sinusoidal modulating wave
s(t) = Ac cos[2f ct +  sin 2f mt] − − − − − (4)
fc = nf1  = n1

• Frequency multiplier n1 shifts the NBFM to WBFM

• Frequency translator will not change the frequency deviation, it only
shifts the FM signal to either upwards and downwards in the spectrum
• Frequency multiplier n2 is used to increase the Δf and fc
Bessel table (n vs β)
 Problems
• Given the angle modulated signal
S(t) = 10sin[2 108 t + 200cos 2 103 t]
• What is the bandwidth?
 Problems
• Given the angle modulated signal
S(t) = 10sin[2 108 t + 200cos 2 103 t]
• What is the bandwidth?

• Modulation index is 200

• Based on Carson rule
BW = 2(f + f m ) = 2 f m (1+  )
 Problems
• Given the angle modulated signal
S(t) = 10sin[2 108 t + 200cos 2 103 t]
• What is the bandwidth?

• Modulation index is 200

• Based on Carson rule
BW = 2(f + f m ) = 2 f m (1+  )

BW = 2(f + f m ) = 2 f m (1+  ) = 402KHz

 Problems
• A block diagram of the Armstrong FM transmitter is shown below.
Compute the maximum frequency deviation Δf at the output of the
transmitter and the carrier frequency if f1=200 KHz and fLO=10.8 MHz,
Δf1=25 Hz,n1=64,n2=48.
 Problems
f1=200 KHz and fLO=10.8 MHz, Δf1=25 Hz,n1=64,n2=48.

• Δf=Δf1xn1xn2=76.8 KHz
 Problems
f1=200 KHz and fLO=10.8 MHz, Δf1=25 Hz,n1=64,n2=48.

• Δf=Δf1xn1xn2=76.8 KHz

• f2=n1xf1=12.8 MHz
 Problems
f1=200 KHz and fLO=10.8 MHz, Δf1=25 Hz,n1=64,n2=48.
• Δf=Δf1xn1xn2=76.8 KHz

• f2=n1xf1=12.8 MHz

• f3=f2±fLO=23.6 MHz or 2 MHz

 Problems
f1=200 KHz and fLO=10.8 MHz, Δf1=25 Hz,n1=64,n2=48.
• Δf=Δf1xn1xn2=76.8 KHz

• f2=n1xf1=12.8 MHz

• f3=f2±fLO=23.6 MHz or 2 MHz

• fc=n2xf3=1132.8 MHz when f3=23.6 MHz

• fc=n2xf3=96 MHz when f3=2 MHz

Comparison of AM, FM, PM
Comparison of AM, FM, PM
Comparison of AM, FM, PM
Comparison of AM, FM, PM
Comparison of AM, FM, PM
Comparison of WBFM and NBFM
Comparison of WBFM and NBFM