UNIT IV FUNDAMENTALS OF CLIMATE CHANGE 6

Sustainable Development- Climate Change- Causes and effects of Global Warming - Effect of
global warming in food supply, plants, sea, coral reef, forest, agriculture, economy - Kyoto Protocol
in reduction of greenhouse gases - Ozone Layer Depletion - mechanism, effects and control
measures- Montreal Protocol to protect ozone layer depletion - Rain Water Harvesting - Effect of
climate change due to air pollution Case study - CNG vehicles in Delhi

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
“The development that meets the needs of the present generation without compromising the ability
of future generations to meet their own needs”.
POSSIBLE WAYS OF ACHIEVING SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
1. Population control
A sustainable human population for a region should be estimated and the growth of population
limited to the optimum level.
2. Reduced consumption
Simple life style with a lower level of consumption should become widespread. This will reduce the
per capita consumption, which in turn will reduce the stress on the environment.
3. Integrated land use planning
Relative priorities among different land uses like agriculture, forestry, fodder cultivation, urban and
industrial growth, traffic, etc. should be planned and managed effectively.
4. Renewable resources
Future development should be based on material resources that can be renewed or recycled, like solar
energy, wind energy, hydroelectric power, etc.
5. Biosphere conservation
Thousands of plant and animal species are endangered today with threats of extinction due to
pollution. The diversity of species is essential for ecological balance and stability.
6. Production efficiency
Many of the current production processes involve wastages that can be reduced or
avoided with the help of improved technologies. Genetic hybrids, drip irrigation, pest
control and soil-crop-fertility management will also improve agricultural productivity
for sustainable development.
7. Pollution control
Pollution of air, water and soil constitutes a major threat to the future of mankind.
Improved pollution control technology is of utmost importance for sustainable development.
9. Water resource management
River flooding, silting up of water reservoirs, over-exploitation of ground water,
waterlogging by excessive irrigation and poor drainage and pollution of water bodies
affect sustainable development. The provision of clean drinking water and adequate sanitation
is necessary to protect human health and the environment.

GreenHouse Effect
Definition
The progressive warming up of the earth’s surface due to blanketting (blocking)effect of manmade
CO2 in the atmosphere.
Main Green House gases
CO2, CH4, N2O, CFCs, etc.,
About 34 % of the incoming solar radiation is reflected back into space by the atmosphere. The
remaining 66 % of incoming solar energy warms the troposphere and will be helpful for
biological operations in the earth.
Finally, the solar radiation is radiated as infrared radiation (which we experience as heat) back
into space by earth. Hence, the energy input from the sun is equal to the energy output of the
earth. But, the greenhouse gases in the atmosphere reduce this flow of heat back into space
thereby helping in warming the earth’s surface and the lower atmosphere, which is called as
greenhouse effect, and without which the earth would be too cold for life to exist.

Reasons for enhanced global warming

- Excessive usage of fossil fuels, coal-burning power plants, automobile exhausts, factory
smokestacks, etc. in the human environment contribute about 22 billion tons / year of carbon dioxide
and other greenhouse gases into the earth’s atmosphere.
- Deforestation and clearing and burning of grasslands to raise crops cause the release of carbon
dioxide and nitrous oxide.
- Animal agriculture, manure, natural gas, rice paddies, landfi lls, coal and other sources contribute
about 250 million tons of methane each year. About half of the human emissions have remain in the
atmosphere.
- Because of the above reasons, the atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide and methane have
increased by 31 % and 149 % respectively since 1750.

Effects of global warming

The warming of global climate could have a number of harmful (and at times benefi cial) effects for
man, other species and the ecosystem, depending on the location and how rapidly the climate
changes.
1. Heat waves and periods of unusually warm weather leading to increase in heat related
illnesses and death, especially in urban areas and among the elderly, the young, and the poor.
2. Ocean warming, sea-level rise and coastal flooding: Melting glaciers, and increase in ocean
heat content, have caused ocean water to expand and because of this, the global sea level has
risen. On average, 15 to 30 metres of beach are lost for every 30 cm of sea-level rise.
3. Melting of glaciers: Over the past 150 years, the majority of mountain glaciers monitored have
been shrinking and many of them will be gone by the year 2100. As glaciers continue to shrink,
summer water fl ows in rivers will drop sharply, disrupting an important source of water for
irrigation and power in many areas.
4. Arctic and Antarctic warming: Parts of Canada, Alaska, Siberia, and the Antarctic have been
experiencing warming well above the global average for the past few decades.
Listed below are some of the events that foreshadow the types of impacts likely to become more
frequent and widespread with continued global warming:
- Spreading disease: a common observation is that the warmer temperatures allow mosquitoes that
transmit diseases such as malaria and dengue fever to extend their ranges and increase both their
biting rate and their ability to infect humans.
- Earlier spring arrival: leading to earlier dates for plant blooming and leafi ng; and earlier animal
egg laying, spawning and migration.
- Coral reef bleaching: due to the loss of microscopic algae, coral reefs will be affected. Warming of
water, nutrient and sediment run-off, pollution, coastal development, dynamiting and natural storms
greatly reduce the coral reefs.
- Downpours, heavy snowfalls, and fl ooding: A warmer climate will bring an increase in
precipitation worldwide, especially during winter and in mid-tohigh latitudes.
- Droughts and fires: As the climate warms up, droughts are expected to become more frequent and
severe in some locations leading to wildfi res. Crops and trees become more vulnerable to pest
infestations and diseases.
- Depletion of water resources: The quality and quantity of drinking water, availability for irrigation,
industrial use, and electricity generation will be adversely affected.
- Health effects: Heat-stress mortality and heat strokes could increase due to higher temperatures
over longer periods.
- Agriculture and forests:Global warming could increase susceptibility to fi re, disease and insect
damage.
- Energy and transportation: Warmer temperatures increase cooling demand but decrease heating
requirements. Fewer disruptions of winter transportation may occur, but increased fl ooding or
lowered river levels may affect water transport.
- Beneficial effects: Some possible benefi cial effects of global warming are less severe winters, more
precipitation in some dry areas, less precipitation in some wet areas, increased food production in
some areas, expanded population and range for some plant and animal species adapted to higher
temperature. But in the long run, these benefi cial effects may also disappear with continued
warming.

Can we slow down the rate of global warming?

According to the environmentalists, the world needs to cut current emissions of greenhouse gases
to stabilise the concentrations of such gases, so as to reduce the rate of global warming. Listed
below are several ways for reducing the greenhouse gases.
- Reduced usage of fossil fuels reduces carbon dioxide emission. About 2 kg of carbon dioxide
emission can be prevented if a litre of petrol is not used.
- Usage of energy effi cient refrigerators, air-conditioners and water heaters will reduce emission
of carbon dioxide considerably.
- Reduction of garbage by recycling and reuse will help reduced emission of green house gases.
- Shifting from coal to natural gas
- Using sustainable agriculture
- Using renewable energy
- Planting more trees

Kyoto Protocol
The long-term effects of global warming would include a general rise in sea level resulting in
the flood of low-lying coastal areas the melting of glaciers, sea ice, and Arctic .A
extreme climate-related changes, such as floods and droughtsand an increased risk
of extinction for 20 to 30 percent of all plant and animal species may occur.
Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCC)was
adopted in December 1997 aimed to reduce the emission of gases that contribute to global
warming
The Kyoto Protocol implemented the objective of the UNFCCC to fight global warming by
reducing greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere.
The targets for the first commitment period of the Kyoto Protocol cover emissions of the six
main greenhouse gases, namely:
• Carbon dioxide (CO2)
• Methane (CH4)
• Nitrous oxide (N2O)
• Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs);
• Perfluorocarbons (PFCs)
The protocol entered into force in February 2005, 90 days after being ratified by at least 55
cuntries that together accounted for at least 55 percent of total carbon dioxide emissions in 1990.
The protocol provided several targets.
 One approach was to remove greenhouse gases from the atmosphere. The planting of
trees, which take up carbon dioxide from the air, would be an example.
 Another approach was the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), which encouraged
developed countries to reduce [Link] example would be an investment in a clean-
burning natural gas power plant to replace a proposed coal-fired plant.
 A third approach was emissions trading, which allowed countries to buy and sell
emissions rights
 European countries initiated an emissions-trading market as a mechanism to work toward
meeting their commitments under the Kyoto Protocol. Countries that failed to meet their
emissions targets were given a penalty amount of 30 percent and would also be prevented
from engaging in emissions trading.

OZONE LAYER DEPLETION

Formation of ozone
This atomic oxygen reacts very fastly with molecular oxygen. Ozone thus formed spreads itself in the
stratosphere which blocks out the sun’s ultraviolet rays and acts as a life saver.

Measurement of atmospheric ozone

The amount of atmospheric ozone is measured by “Dobson Spectrometer” and is
expressed in Dobson units (DU)
1 DU = 0.01 mm thickness of pure ozone.
2. Causes of Ozone layer of depletion
Human activity is the major source of stratospheric ozone depletion, while
threatening volcanic eruptions are less common. The ozone layer was attacked by
chlorofl uoro carbons (CFCs) which are released into atmosphere by refrigeration units, air
conditioners, aerosol sprays and some cleaning agents. Chlorofl uoro carbons release
chlorine which breaks ozone into oxygen.
Cl + O3 ClO + O2
ClO + O Cl + O2

Effect of Ozone Layer Depletion

Ozone layer which is at stratosphere acts as a blanket that prevent the harmful ultraviolet rays
emitted by sun thereby saves the living organism in the earth. As the ozone layer gets damaged the
harmful UV rays will reach the ground and creates various dangerous effects.
1. Effects on human health
-UV rays affects genetic material in the skin cells that creates skin cancer.
- Long term UV radiation will cause slow blindness
-UV rays radiation on human body will reduce the immunity, allergies etc.
2. Effect on Aquatic Organisms
- The aquatic organisms like phytoplankton, zooplanktons, fishes etc are affected by
UV rays.
- Phytoplankton is a very good absorbing material for CO2. If the UV radiation
falls directly to the aquatic systems the phytoplanktons will be collapsed
Name of the chemicals Sources
Chloro Fluoro Carbon (CFC) Refrigerators (freon)
Propellent in aerosol spray containers
Foam plastic (Thermocole) blowing agents
Hydro Chloro Fluoro Carbon (HCFC) Refrigerators, some blowing agents
From Industrial smokes and automobile exhausts
3. Effect on Climate
Temperature of globe get increased which is known as global warming.

Prevention of ozone layer depletion

1. Replace CFCs by some other materials which are less toxic to atmosphere.
2. Avoid using Styrofoam cups and replace with a mug (or) paper bags.
3. Reduce the usuage of ozone depleting chemicals.
4. Buy individual fruits and vegetables rather than those packed in Styrofoam containers.

INTERNATIONAL AGREEMENTS
Montreal Protocol
A protocol to the Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer
It is an international treaty designed to protect the ozone layer by removing the production of
numerous substances that are responsible for ozone depletion. It entered into the force on 1
January 1989, followed by a first meeting in Helsinki, May 1989. As a result of the international
agreement, the ozone hole in Antarctica is slowly recovering. Climate projections indicate that
the ozone layer will return to 1980 levels between 2050 and 2070.

 Chemists theorized that chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) compounds combine with solar

radiation and decompose in the stratosphere, releasing atoms of chlorine and chlorine
monoxide that are individually able to destroy large numbers of ozone molecules.
 Further validation of their work came in 1985 with the discovery of a “hole” in the
ozone shield over Antarctica
 The initial agreement was designed to reduce the production and consumption of several
types of CFCs and halons
 The protocol went into effect on Jan. 1, 1989. Since then the agreement has
been amended to further reduce and completely phase out CFCs and halons, as well as
the manufacture and use of carbon tetrachloride, trichloroethane, hydrofluorocarbons
(HFCs), hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), hydrobromofluorocarbons
(HBFCs), methyl bromide.
 In developed countries the production and consumption of halons formally ended by
1994, several other chemicals (such as CFCs, HBFCs, carbon tetrachloride, and methyl
 chloroform) were phased out by 1996, methyl bromide was eliminated in 2005, and
HCFCs are scheduled to be completely phased out by 2030.
 In contrast, developing countries phased out CFCs, carbon tetrachloride, methyl
chloroform, and halons by 2010; they are scheduled to phase out methyl bromide by
2015 and eliminate HCFCs by 2040.
 The Antarctic ozone hole grew in size throughout the 1990s and the first decade of the
21st century.
 The ozone layer over the Arctic also thinned, although not as pronouncedly as over the
Antarctic.
 Despite these findings, most scientists contend that the ozone layer will eventually
recover.

Montreal Protocol Kyoto Protocol

Signed 14–16 September 1987 11 December 1997
Location Montreal Kyoto, Japan
Effective 1 January 1989 16 February 2005
Condition ratification by 20 states Ratification by at least 55 States
to the Convention
Signatories 46 84
Ratifiers 197 (all United Nations 192 EU, Cook Islands, Niue and
members, as well as Niue, all UN member states, except
the Cook Islands, the Holy Andorra, Canada, South Sudan
See and the European Union) and US

Depositary Secretary-General of the United Secretary-General of the United

Nations Nations

RAINWATER HARVESTING
Rainwater harvesting essentially means collecting rainwater falling on the roofs of buildings and
storing it underground for later use.
Benefits:
- Rainwater harvesting increases the availability of water.
- It checks declining water tables.
- It is environment-friendly.
- It improves the quality of groundwater through the dilution of fluoride, nitrate and
saline content.
- It prevents soil erosion and flooding, especially in urban areas.
- conserve surface water run-off during the rainy seaso
METHOD OF RAINWATER HARVESTING
A rainwater harvesting is a system used to collect and store the rainwater for various purposes. The
water is collected at the rooftops and by using a horizontal collector pipe (vertically cut PVC pipe
placed horizontally at the roof top edges), water is carried down through vertical drain pipes to a
percolation pit. This percolation pit may have a depth of 4 - 8 metres, a diameter of 1 - 2 feet and is
filled with coarse and fine pebbles at the bottom and coarse sand at the top.

EFFECT OF CLIMATE CHANGE DUE TO AIR POLLUTION

Two of the planet's main environmental problems, climate change and air pollution, are closely
linked. Firstly, climate change is the global variation of the Earth's climate due to natural causes
and human activity. Global warming is accelerated by greenhouse gases caused by human
activity. The main greenhouse gases are carbon dioxide (CO₂), methane (CH₄) and nitrous oxide
(N₂O). Although CO₂ is the main gas contributing to climate change, it is not harmful to human
health.

Climate change has many consequences with global impact, mainly due to changes in climate
patterns, the rising sea level and more extreme meteorological phenomena. Climate change is not
only an environmental phenomenon, its negative impacts have social and economic
consequences, too.

For its part, air pollution is the presence, in the air, of substances or particles that imply danger,
damage or disturbance for humans, flora or fauna. The main sources of atmospheric
contamination are tropospheric ozone gases (O3), sulfur oxides (SO2 and SO3), nitrogen oxides
(NO and NO2), and particulate matter (PM). These gases result mainly from emissions caused by
the burning of fossil fuels (including emissions generated by transport), industrial processes,
burning of forests, aerosol use, and radiation.
Road traffic is one of the most significant sources of both greenhouse gases and air pollution.
Both climate change and air pollution are worsened by the burning of fuel, increasing the
CO2 emissions which cause global warming. Meanwhile, the generation of other pollutants, such
as nitrogen oxides (NO and NO2), sulfur oxides (SO2 and SO3) and particulate matter, is the main
reason the air is contaminated.
Social harm of climate change and air pollution
Another characteristic shared by both phenomena is their serious impact on society. Climate
change causes drought, flooding, deforestation, homelessness and extinction of animal and plant
species… resulting in famine and disease. Atmospheric pollution causes six million deaths a
year worldwide and a quarter of lung cancer cases, heart attacks and strokes, representing 0.3%
of world GDP in health costs, as well as reducing productivity at work.
Air pollution and climate change tend to get worse over time. The World Health Organization
(WHO) guideline states that daily exposure to particulate matter per cubic meter of air should not
exceed 25 micrograms, yet this figure is surpassed in many cities around the world.
This website allows you to view real-time air quality data for any city around the world. It also
shows the countries that emit the most air pollution.
Air pollution and climate change are getting worse. The impacts mentioned above will be felt
with increasing severity as time goes on if we do not change the energy model. The effects will
be more devastating for both the planet and for people’s health. CO2 accumulates and can last at
least 100 years in the atmosphere. The global level of air pollution could increase fivefold over
the next half-century if the situation is not remedied.

Changes in the chemical composition of the atmosphere, which have resulted from massive
industrialization, intensive agriculture and urbanization, as well as road, maritime and air
traffic, have led directly and indirectly to enhanced radiative forcing with, as a result,
future changes in the Earth’s temperatures and hydrological cycles.

Changes in climate can result in impacts to local air quality. Emissions of pollutants into the air
can result in changes to the climate. Ozone in the atmosphere warms the climate, while different
components of particulate matter (PM) can have either warming or cooling effects on the
climate. For example, black carbon, a particulate pollutant from combustion, contributes to the
warming of the Earth, while particulate sulphates cool the earth's atmosphere.

Air quality is strongly dependent on weather and is therefore sensitive to climate change. Recent
studies have provided estimates of this climate effect through correlations of air quality with
meteorological variables.
The observed correlation between surface ozone and temperature in polluted regions points to a
detrimental effect of warming. Coupled GCM–CTM studies find that climate change alone will
increase summertime surface ozone in polluted regions by 1–10 ppb over the coming decades.
This climate penalty means that stronger emission controls will be needed to meet a given air
quality standard.
Higher water vapor in the future climate is expected to decrease the ozone background, so that
pollution and background ozone have opposite sensitivities to climate change.
The effect of climate change on particulate matter (PM) is more complicated and uncertain than
ozone.
Precipitation frequency and mixing depth are important driving factors but projections for these
variables are often unreliable.

 The largest contribution to radiative forcing is caused by increasing atmospheric

concentrations of carbon dioxide, a product of fossil fuel combustion.
 The emissions of other greenhouse gases, including methane and nitrous oxide, have also
increased as a result of human activities.
 Ozone is a reactive gas that is not only important in protecting us from harmful
ultraviolet radiation but is also a greenhouse gas and, at high smog-level concentrations,
harmful to human health and vegetation.
 Finally, the release into the atmosphere of sulphur dioxide, a precursor of sulphate
aerosol particles, of black carbon and organic particles has also affected radiative transfer
in the atmosphere with impacts on the climate system.
 Submicron sulphate aerosol particles tend to scatter a fraction of the incoming solar
radiation back to space, but black carbon particles absorb a significant amount of solar
radiation.
 In addition, aerosols provide the condensation nuclei that facilitate the formation of cloud
droplets.
The climate impact of chemical compounds, and specifically of air pollution, is therefore
difficult to estimate. Even more difficult to assess is the impact of climate change on the
chemical composition and, specifically, on air quality.
Impact of climate change on the chemical composition of the background atmosphere
The impact of climate change on the atmospheric abundance of reactive gases and aerosols can
occur through different mechanisms:

 Changes in atmospheric temperature affect the rates at which chemical reactions take place.
 Changes in atmospheric humidity affect the chemical production and destruction of
chemical species like ozone.
 Changes in the lightning affect the atmospheric production of nitric oxide.
 Changes in atmospheric cloudiness affect the atmospheric composition by modifying the
penetration of solar radiation and, hence, the photochemical activity in the atmosphere.
 Changes in the precipitation affect the rate at which soluble species removed from the
atmosphere.
 Changes in surface temperature and precipitation affect the emission and deposition of
chemical compounds and the surface deposition by vegetation and soil.
 Changes in ocean temperature affect the atmosphere-ocean exchanges of compounds such as
dimethyl sulphide, which are a source of sulphate aerosols.
 Changes in the general circulation of the atmosphere affect the long-range transport of
pollutants from continent to continent.

Most of the nitrogen oxides present in the atmosphere are released as a result of combustion
processes.
The increasing number of forest fire in regions where droughts are becoming more frequent or
intense will lead to substantially larger emissions of combustion products such as carbon
monoxide, nitric oxide, soot and other compounds, with large impacts on regional and even
global air quality.
Case Study
CNG VEHICLES IN DELHI

 In 1993, during the English cricket tour of India, when the visitors lost a match, they
recognized their loss to the air pollution in Delhi.
 The pollution levels were dangerously high enough for it to be listed amongst the world’s
most polluted cities.
 Vehicular emissions, which accounted for 70% of the air pollution,
 Deadly smog during the foggy winters resulting in an increase in respiratory illnesses,
with children and senior citizens being the worst affected
 500 new vehicles being added every day.
 The Supreme Court of India ordered the responsible government to switch its public-
transit system to a cleaner-burning fuel in response to citizens concerns about air
pollution.
 Buoyed by the public pressure, the government of New Delhi reluctantly as is typical of a
developing nation, complied and enforced regulations to convert its entire fleet of diesel
and gasoline dependent public transport system to Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) by
2002.
 It earned the recognition of drafting one amongst the top 12 best policies in the world, as
per a study conducted by the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF).
 Between 2000 and 2008, the Carbon emissions plummeted by 72%, while the SO 2
emissions decreased by 57% on account of 3500 CNG buses, 12000 taxis, 65000 auto
rickshaws (tuk-tuks) and 5000 mini buses plying on CNG .
 CNG is mainly comprised of methane, which upon combustion mainly emits CO 2 and
H2O and being lighter disperses very quickly, whereas gasoline and diesel being more
complex, emit more harmful emissions such as NOX and SOX.
 Owing to the recent volatility in the oil prices and continued patronage of CNG by the
government by way of subsidies, the general public has begun to increasingly incorporate
CNG kits in their private vehicles, which facilitates them to run on dual fuel mode.
 Encouraged by the public response, the Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas has set
about an ambition plan of bringing 200 cities under the supply network of CNG and
Piped Natural Gas (PNG) by 2015.
 It also brought lesser dependence on foreign oil, enabling us to save valuable foreign
exchange.
 In view of growing awareness for cleaner air and climate change, there’s many a lesson
to be learnt from Delhi’s revival.