🌸 𝕡𝕤𝕪𝕔𝕙𝕠𝕝𝕠𝕘𝕪 assignment

[Link]

Tab 1

🌸 𝕡𝕤𝕪𝕔𝕙𝕠𝕝𝕠𝕘𝕪
- The word "𝙥𝙨𝙮𝙘𝙝𝙤𝙡𝙤𝙜𝙮 " is derived from two Greek words '𝙥𝙨𝙪𝙘𝙝𝙚' (Ψ) and '𝙡𝙤𝙜𝙤𝙨 '. Psyche refers to mind, soul or sprit while logos means study,
knowledge or discourse.

👉𝙥𝙨𝙮𝙘𝙝𝙤𝙡𝙤𝙜𝙮 is the scientific study of human behavior and the underlying mental process
✍️ Science: psychology uses scientific procedures and empirical data to study behavior and mental processes.
✍️ Behavior: overt or observable actions, such as talking, facial expressions, movement, etc and
✍️covert or unobservable behavior such as thinking , feelings and memory which are hidden, and generally considered as a 𝙢𝙚𝙣𝙩𝙖𝙡 𝙥𝙧𝙤𝙘𝙚𝙨𝙨 .
🌸𝙜𝙤𝙖𝙡 𝙤𝙛 𝙥𝙨𝙮𝙘𝙝𝙤𝙡𝙤𝙜
As a science, psychology has four goals;

1. 𝙙𝙚𝙨𝙘𝙧𝙞𝙥𝙩𝙞𝙤𝙣 : describing individuals behaviour

2. 𝙚𝙭𝙥𝙡𝙖𝙣𝙖𝙩𝙞𝙤𝙣 : understanding and telling the cause

3. 𝙥𝙧𝙚𝙙𝙞𝙘𝙩𝙞𝙤𝙣 : determining what will happen in the future and

4. 𝙘𝙤𝙣𝙩𝙧𝙤𝙡 : modifying or changing the behavior from undesirable

🌸 𝙝𝙞𝙨𝙩𝙤𝙧𝙞𝙘𝙖𝙡 𝙗𝙖𝙘𝙠𝙜𝙧𝙤𝙪𝙣𝙙 𝙖𝙣𝙙 𝙢𝙖𝙟𝙤𝙧 𝙥𝙚𝙧𝙨𝙥𝙚𝙘𝙩𝙞𝙫𝙚 𝙞𝙣 𝙥𝙨𝙮𝙘𝙝𝙤𝙡𝙤𝙜𝙮

👉 Psychology is a relatively new field in the realm of sciences.
👉 It began as a science of its own in 1879 in Leipzig, Germany, with the establishment of a psychology laboratory in the University of Leipzig by
Wilhelm Wundt (father of modern

psychology).

👉 Wundt developed the technique of objective introspection to scientifically examine mental experiences.
🌸 𝙢𝙤𝙙𝙚𝙧𝙣 𝙨𝙘𝙝𝙤𝙤𝙡𝙨 𝙤𝙛 𝙥𝙨𝙮𝙘𝙝𝙤𝙡𝙤𝙜𝙮
• Perspectives are the different assumptions or ways of explaining behaviors.

Take the following case to see different explanations

1. 𝙥𝙨𝙮𝙘𝙝𝙤𝙙𝙮𝙣𝙖𝙢𝙞𝙘 𝙥𝙚𝙧𝙨𝙥𝙚𝙘𝙩𝙞𝙫𝙚: It has its origins in Freud's theory of psychoanalysis, but many other psychodynamic theories exist. It emphasizes
on;

– the unconscious dynamics within the individual such as inner forces, conflicts or instinctual energy.

– The role of childhood experiences in shaping adult personality

– The role of intrapersonal conflict in human

2. 𝙗𝙚𝙝𝙖𝙫𝙞𝙤𝙧𝙖𝙡 𝙥𝙚𝙧𝙨𝙥𝙚𝙘𝙩𝙞𝙫𝙚: It emphasizes on the role learning experiences play in shaping

the behavior of an organism. It is concerned with how the environment affects the person‘s actions.

• Behaviorists focus on environmental conditions (e.g. rewards, & punishments) that maintain or discourage specific behaviors.

• The behavioral perspective is sometimes called the "black box" approach in psychology because it treats the mind as less useful in
understanding human behavior.

• This means, behaviorists are only interested in the effects of the environment (input) on behavior (output) but not in the process inside the box.

3. 𝙝𝙪𝙢𝙖𝙣𝙞𝙨𝙩𝙞𝙘 𝙥𝙚𝙧𝙨𝙥𝙚𝙘𝙩𝙞𝙫𝙚: According to this perspective, human behavior is not determined either by unconscious dynamics or the environment.
Rather it emphasizes the uniqueness of human beings and focuses on human values and subjective experiences.

▪️This perspective places greater importance on the individual‘s free will.

▪️The goal of humanistic psychology was helping people to express themselves creatively and achieve their full potential.
4. 𝙘𝙤𝙜𝙣𝙞𝙩𝙞𝙫𝙚 𝙥𝙚𝙧𝙨𝙥𝙚𝙘𝙩𝙞𝙫𝙚: It emphasizes what goes on in people's heads; how people

reason, remember, understand language, solve problems,

5. 𝙗𝙞𝙤𝙡𝙤𝙜𝙞𝙘𝙖𝙡 𝙥𝙚𝙧𝙨𝙥𝙚𝙘𝙩𝙞𝙫𝙚: It focuses on how the body affects behavior, feelings, and thoughts. It holds that the brain and the various brain
chemicals affect psychological processes such as learning,

performance, perceptions, the experience of emotions, etc.

• This perspective underscores that biology and behavior interact in a complex way; biology affecting behavior and behavior in turn affecting
biology.

6,. 𝙨𝙤𝙘𝙞𝙤-𝙘𝙪𝙡𝙩𝙪𝙧𝙖𝙡 𝙥𝙚𝙧𝙨𝙥𝙚𝙘𝙩𝙞𝙫𝙚 : It focuses on the social and cultural factors that affects human behavior.

• As a fish cannot leave without water, human behavior cannot be understood without sociocultural context (the social and

cultural environment) that people "Swim" in every day.

• For instance, social psychologists examine how group membership affects attitudes and behaviors, why people (like spouse, lovers, friends,
bosses, parents, & strangers) affect us

• Cultural psychologists also examine how cultural rules and values affect people's development, behavior, and feelings.

• This perspective holds that humans are both the products and the producers of culture, and our behavior always occurs in some cultural
contexts.

🍄𝙗𝙧𝙖𝙣𝙘𝙝𝙚𝙨 / 𝙨𝙪𝙗 𝙛𝙞𝙚𝙡𝙙𝙨 𝙤𝙛 𝙥𝙨𝙮𝙘𝙝𝙤𝙡𝙤𝙜𝙮

Psychology has very diverse fields/branches/sub fields which psychologists can pursue. Some of which are;

A. 𝙙𝙚𝙫𝙚𝙡𝙤𝙥𝙢𝙚𝙣𝙩𝙖𝙡 𝙥𝙨𝙮𝙘𝙝𝙤𝙡𝙤𝙜𝙮 – It studies the physical, cognitive and psychological changes across the life span.

B. 𝙥𝙚𝙧𝙨𝙤𝙣𝙖𝙡𝙞𝙩𝙮 𝙥𝙨𝙮𝙘𝙝𝙤𝙡𝙤𝙜𝙮 – it study about individual differences which focuses on the relatively enduring traits & characteristics of individuals.

C. 𝙨𝙤𝙘𝙞𝙖𝙡 𝙥𝙨𝙮𝙘𝙝𝙤𝙡𝙤𝙜𝙮 –deals with people‘s social interactions,

relationships, social perception, and attitudes.

D. 𝙘𝙧𝙤𝙨𝙨-𝙘𝙪𝙡𝙩𝙪𝙧𝙖𝙡 𝙥𝙨𝙮𝙘𝙝𝙤𝙡𝙤𝙜𝙮 - examines the role of culture in understanding behavior, thought, and emotion.

E. 𝙞𝙣𝙙𝙪𝙨𝙩𝙧𝙞𝙖𝙡 𝙥𝙨𝙮𝙘𝙝𝙤𝙡𝙤𝙜𝙮 – applies psychological principles in industries & organizations to increase the productivity. F. Forensic psychology -
applies psychological principles to improve the legal system (police, testimony, etc.

G. 𝙚𝙙𝙪𝙘𝙖𝙩𝙞𝙤𝙣𝙖𝙡 𝙥𝙨𝙮𝙘𝙝𝙤𝙡𝙤𝙜𝙮 - concerned with the application of psychological principles & theories to improve education process

H. 𝙝𝙚𝙖𝙡𝙩𝙝 𝙥𝙨𝙮𝙘𝙝𝙤𝙡𝙤𝙜𝙮 - applies psychological principles to the prevention and treatment of physical illness and diseases.

I. 𝙘𝙡𝙞𝙣𝙞𝙘𝙖𝙡 𝙥𝙨𝙮𝙘𝙝𝙤𝙡𝙤𝙜𝙮 - is a field that applies psychological principles and psychotherapeutic techniques to the prevention, diagnosis, and
treatment of psychological disorders.

J. 𝙘𝙤𝙪𝙣𝙨𝙚𝙡𝙞𝙣𝙜 𝙥𝙨𝙮𝙘𝙝𝙤𝙡𝙤𝙜𝙮 - has the same concern as clinical psychology but helps individuals with less severe or milder

(simpler) emotional & personal problems.

🍄𝙧𝙚𝙨𝙚𝙖𝙧𝙘𝙝 𝙢𝙚𝙩𝙝𝙤𝙙 𝙞𝙣 𝙥𝙨𝙮𝙘𝙝𝙤𝙡𝙤𝙜𝙮

Definition of terms

✍️𝙧𝙚𝙨𝙚𝙖𝙧𝙘𝙝 - is a scientific method of acquiring knowledge and solving proble𝙢

✍️𝙨𝙘𝙞𝙚𝙣𝙩𝙞𝙛𝙞𝙘 𝙢𝙚𝙩𝙝𝙤𝙙 - a process of testing ideas through systematic observations, experimentations, and statistical analysis.
✍️𝙝𝙮𝙥𝙤𝙩𝙝𝙚𝙨𝙞𝙨 - is a tentative proposition about the relationship between two or more variables or phenomena.
✍️𝙩𝙝𝙚𝙤𝙧𝙮 - is an integrated set of principles about observed facts that is intended to describe and explain some aspects of
experience. Steps in scientific research

1. Defining the Problem - noticing something attention catching

in the surrounding for which one would like to have an explanation. E.g., Students’ dropout

2. Formulating the Hypothesis - after having an observation on surroundings (perceiving the problem), you might form an educated guess about
the explanation for your observations, putting it into the form of a statement that can be tested.

3. Testing the Hypothesis - at this step, the researcher employs appropriate research methods and collects ample data (information) to accept or
reject the proposed statement.
4. Drawing Conclusions - the step in which researchers attempt to make generalization or draw implication from tested relations

5. Reporting Results - at this point, the researcher write up exactly what s/he did, why s/he did, and what s/he found. So that, others can learn from
what s/he already [Link] findings allows others to predict and modify behavior.

🌸 𝕝𝕖𝕒𝕣𝕟𝕚𝕟𝕘
🍄is a relatively permanent change in behavior which is a function of prior experience or practice;
👉a relatively permanent change
👉change in behavior
👉depend on experience or practice
👉The learning is not directly observable but
manifests in the activities of the individual.

𝙘𝙝𝙖𝙧𝙖𝙘𝙩𝙚𝙧𝙨𝙩𝙞𝙘𝙨 𝙤𝙛 𝙡𝙚𝙖𝙧𝙣𝙞𝙣𝙜

👉 continuous modification of behavior throughout life

👉 pervasive, it reaches into all aspects of human life.
👉 involves the whole person, socially, emotionally & intellectually.
👉 often a change in the organization of experiences.
👉 responsive to incentives
👉 an active process and purposeful
👉 depends on maturation, motivation and practice.
👉 multifaceted
🍄 𝙥𝙧𝙞𝙣𝙘𝙞𝙥𝙡𝙚𝙨 𝙤𝙛 𝙡𝙚𝙖𝙧𝙣𝙞𝙣𝙜
👉Individuals learn best when they are physically, mentally, and emotionally ready to learn.
👉 Students learn best and retain information longer when they have meaningful practice and exercise
👉 Learning is strengthened when accompanied by a pleasant or satisfying feeling, and that learning is weakened when associated with an
unpleasant feeling.

👉 Things learned first create a strong impression in the mind that is difficult to erase.
👉 Things most recently learned are best remembered.
👉 𝙩he principle of intensity implies that a student will learn more from the real thing than from a substitute.
👉 Individuals must have some abilities and skills that may help them to learn.
👉 Things freely learned are best learned - the
greater the freedom enjoyed by individuals, the higher the intellectual and moral advancement.

🍄 𝙛𝙖𝙘𝙩𝙤𝙧 𝙞𝙣𝙛𝙡𝙪𝙚𝙣𝙘𝙞𝙣𝙜 𝙡𝙚𝙖𝙧𝙣𝙞𝙣𝙜

• Motivation

• Maturation

• Health condition of the learner

• Psychological wellbeing of the learner

• Good working conditions

• Background experiences

• Length of the working period

• Massed and distributed learning

🍄 𝙩𝙝𝙚𝙤𝙧𝙮 𝙤𝙛 𝙡𝙚𝙖𝙧𝙣𝙞𝙣𝙜
• Theories of learning attempt to explain the mechanism of behavior involved in the learning process. Generally, learning theories can be
categorized as:

1. Behavioral Learning Theories

2. Cognitive Learning Theories

3. Social Learning Theory

🌸 𝕓𝕖𝕙𝕒𝕧𝕚𝕠𝕣𝕚𝕤𝕥 𝕝𝕖𝕒𝕣𝕟𝕚𝕟𝕘 𝕥𝕙𝕖𝕠𝕣𝕚𝕖𝕤

Assumption

👉 learning as the product of the association between stimulus conditions (S) and the responses (R).
👉 The learner has to do some thing (respond to a stimulus) for learning to occur.
👉 Repetition of the stimulus-response ( S-R) connection promotes learning
🍄Behavioral theories emphasize observable behaviors, seek laws to govern all organisms, and provide explanations which focus on
consequences.

👉 The consequences that follow the response of the learner to a stimulus can hinder or encourage learning
𝙡𝙚𝙖𝙧𝙣𝙞𝙣𝙜 is verified through observation

Classical Conditioning Theory of Learning

👉founded by a Russian physiologist, Ivan

Pavlov((1849-1936).).

👉He studied the process of salivary secretion in dog.

👉learning of involuntary emotional or physiological responses
👉stimulus conditions and the associations formed in the learning process.
Definition

🍄𝙘𝙡𝙖𝙨𝙨𝙞𝙘𝙖𝙡 𝙘𝙤𝙣𝙙𝙞𝙩𝙞𝙤𝙣𝙞𝙣𝙜 refers a learning situation in which a neutral/ conditioned stimulus gradually gain the ability to elicit a response
because of its former paring with a natural/ unconditioned stimulus

• As we can see from the above procedure, classical conditioning as a paradigm involves four elements

🌸𝙪𝙣𝙘𝙤𝙣𝙙𝙞𝙩𝙞𝙤𝙣𝙚𝙙 𝙨𝙩𝙞𝙢𝙪𝙡𝙪𝙨 (US)

Unconditioned stimulus is any event that elicits a natural response prior to conditioning. -In the above case meat is the unconditioned stimulus
because it caused salivation, automatically before conditioning took place.

🌸𝙪𝙣𝙘𝙤𝙣𝙙𝙞𝙩𝙞𝙤𝙣𝙚𝙙 𝙧𝙚𝙨𝙥𝙤𝙣𝙨𝙚 (UR)

Unconditioned response is the response to the natural unconditioned stimulus. The dog’s salivation after receiving meat is the unconditioned
response. Thus,𝙪𝙣𝙘𝙤𝙣𝙙𝙞𝙩𝙞𝙤𝙣𝙚𝙙 𝙧𝙚𝙨𝙥𝙤𝙣𝙨𝙚 is an automatic, involuntary and unlearned response to a

particular stimulus is called unconditioned response

🌸𝙘𝙤𝙣𝙙𝙞𝙩𝙞𝙤𝙣𝙚𝙙 𝙨𝙩𝙞𝙢𝙪𝙡𝙪𝙨 (CS)

- Conditioned stimulus is the previously neutral stimulus that acquired the power to

elicit a response when it is associated with unconditioned stimulus.

- In the earlier experiment, the bell is a conditioned stimulus since, it latter became capable to make the dog to salivate

🌸𝙘𝙤𝙣𝙙𝙞𝙩𝙞𝙤𝙣𝙚𝙙 𝙧𝙚𝙨𝙥𝙤𝙣𝙨𝙚 (CR)

- Conditioned response is the learned response that is evoked by the conditioned

stimulus. The dog’s salivation in response to sound of the bell (in the absence of

meat) is a conditioned response thus conditioning is said to be complete when

the conditioned stimulus causes a conditioned response to occur with out the

presentation of the unconditioned stimulus.

𝙗𝙖𝙨𝙞𝙘 𝙥𝙧𝙞𝙣𝙘𝙞𝙥𝙡𝙚𝙨 𝙤𝙛 𝙘𝙡𝙖𝙨𝙨𝙞𝙘𝙖𝙡 𝙘𝙤𝙣𝙙𝙞𝙩𝙞𝙤𝙣

1.𝙚𝙭𝙩𝙞𝙣𝙘𝙩𝙞𝙤𝙣 : refers to the decline of CR in absence of UCS.

-It is actually inhibition of the CR rather than elimination of it.

2. 𝙨𝙥𝙤𝙣𝙩𝙖𝙣𝙚𝙤𝙪𝙨 𝙧𝙚𝙘𝙤𝙫𝙚𝙧𝙮 : refers to the reappearance of CR after a rest pause.

3. 𝙨𝙩𝙞𝙢𝙪𝙡𝙪𝙨 𝙜𝙚𝙣𝙚𝙧𝙖𝙡𝙞𝙯𝙖𝙩𝙞𝙤𝙣 : refers to the tendency to react or respond to stimuli that are different from but some what similar to a conditioned
stimulus.

4.𝙨𝙩𝙞𝙢𝙪𝙡𝙪𝙨 𝙙𝙞𝙨𝙘𝙧𝙞𝙢𝙞𝙣𝙖𝙩𝙞𝙤𝙣 : refers to the learning ability to distinguish between CS and other similar but irrelevant stimuli that do not signal
conditioned stimulus. It is

responding to CS but not to other similar stimuli.

🌸𝕠𝕡𝕖𝕣𝕒𝕟𝕥 𝕔𝕠𝕟𝕕𝕚𝕥𝕚𝕠𝕟𝕚𝕟𝕘 𝕥𝕙𝕖𝕠𝕣𝕪 𝕠𝕗 𝕝𝕖𝕒𝕣𝕟𝕚𝕟𝕘

✍️ developed by an American psychologist, B. F. Skinner.
𝙖𝙨𝙨𝙪𝙢𝙥𝙩𝙞𝙤𝙣𝙨

👉 learning in which a voluntary response is strengthened or weakened, depending on its favorable or unfavorable consequences
👉 Environmental consequences is at the heart of Operant Conditioning (also called Instrumental Conditioning)
👉 Operation or actions which an organism has to carry out
🍄 Behavior can be explained by external causes of an action and the action‘s consequences.
🍄 Operant conditioning theory of learning is concerned with voluntary and higher learning rather than reflexive or involuntary behavior. 👉
The term operant conditioning refers to the fact that the learner must operate, or perform a certain behavior, before receiving a reward or
punishment.

👉 Thus, by definition, operant conditioning is a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by reinforcement, or diminished
-
if followed by punishment.

𝙗𝙖𝙨𝙞𝙘 𝙨𝙩𝙚𝙥𝙨 𝙛𝙤𝙡𝙡𝙤𝙬𝙚𝙙 𝙗𝙮 𝙨𝙠𝙞𝙣𝙣𝙚𝙧 𝙞𝙣 𝙤𝙥𝙚𝙧𝙖𝙣𝙩 𝙘𝙤𝙣𝙙𝙞𝙩𝙞𝙤𝙣𝙞𝙣𝙜

1. A hungry animal (a cat, a rat, a pigeon) is placed in a

laboratory setting (example - Skinner box)

2. The animal will wander in the box, exploring its

environment in a random way.

3. The animal will press a lever by chance, which

enables it to receive food from the food container.

4. The first time the response occurred, the animal will not learn the connection between lever pressing and the stimulus (food)

5. As the frequency of lever pressing increases, the animal learns that the receipt of food is dependent 𝙤𝙣 lever pressing behavior.

In Skinner‘s Analysis,

• A response (operant) can lead to three types of consequences: such as

A. A neutral consequence

B. A reinforcement or

C. Punishment

A. A neutral Consequence that does not alter the response.

🌸 𝕣𝕖𝕚𝕟𝕗𝕠𝕣𝕔𝕖𝕞𝕖𝕟𝕥
• A reinforcement that strengthens the response or makes it more likely to recur.

• A reinforcer is any event that increases the probability that the behavior that precedes it will be repeated.

• There are two basic types of reinforcers or reinforcing stimuli:

• Primary reinforcers (naturally reinforcing because they satisfy biological needs & strengthen a behavior without prior learning)

• Secondary reinforcers (reinforce behavior because of their prior association with primary reinforcing stimuli).

👉 Both primary and secondary reinforcers can be positive or negative.

🍄 𝙥𝙤𝙨𝙞𝙩𝙞𝙫𝙚 𝙧𝙚𝙞𝙣𝙛𝙤𝙧𝙘𝙚𝙢𝙚𝙣𝙩
- is the process whereby presentation of a stimulus makes behavior more likely to occur again.

🍄 𝙣𝙚𝙜𝙖𝙩𝙞𝙫𝙚 𝙧𝙚𝙞𝙣𝙛𝙤𝙧𝙘𝙚𝙢𝙚𝙣𝙩
- is the process whereby termination of an

aversive stimulus makes behavior more likely to occur.

- The basic principle of negative reinforcement is that eliminating something aversive can itself be a reinforcer or a reward.

🌺𝙨𝙘𝙝𝙚𝙙𝙪𝙡𝙚𝙨 𝙤𝙛 𝙧𝙚𝙞𝙣𝙛𝙤𝙧𝙘𝙚𝙢𝙚𝙣𝙩
👉 Continuous schedule of reinforcement
- When a response is first acquired, learning is usually most rapid if the response is reinforced each time it occurs.

👉Intermittent (partial) schedule of reinforcement

- which involves reinforcing only some responses, not all of them.

- response has become reliable, it will be more resistant to extinction if it is rewarded partially

🍄 There are four types of intermittent schedules.

1. 𝙛𝙞𝙭𝙚𝙙-𝙧𝙖𝙩𝙞𝙤 𝙨𝙘𝙝𝙚𝙙𝙪𝙡𝙚𝙨

2. 𝙫𝙖𝙧𝙞𝙖𝙗𝙡𝙚-𝙧𝙖𝙩𝙞𝙤 𝙨𝙘𝙝𝙚𝙙𝙪𝙡𝙚

3. 𝙛𝙞𝙭𝙚𝙙 𝙞𝙣𝙩𝙚𝙧𝙫𝙖𝙡 𝙨𝙘𝙝𝙚𝙙𝙪𝙡𝙚𝙨

4.𝙫𝙖𝙧𝙞𝙖𝙗𝙡𝙚 𝙞𝙣𝙩𝙚𝙧𝙫𝙖𝙡 𝙨𝙘𝙝𝙚𝙙𝙪𝙡𝙚

1. 𝙛𝙞𝙭𝙚𝙙 𝙧𝙖𝙩𝙞𝙤 𝙨𝙘𝙝𝙚𝙙𝙪𝙡𝙚𝙨

👉 occurs after a fixed number of responses

👉 produce high rate of responding
👉performance sometimes drops off just after reinforcement
👉 It is effective for motivating a great amount of work
2. 𝙫𝙖𝙧𝙞𝙖𝙗𝙡𝙚-𝙧𝙖𝙩𝙞𝙤 𝙨𝙘𝙝𝙚𝙙𝙪𝙡𝙚

👉 occurs after some average number of responses

👉 produces extremely high steady rates of responding
👉 responses are more resistant to extinctio
Interval Schedule

3. 𝙛𝙞𝙭𝙚𝙙 𝙞𝙣𝙩𝙚𝙧𝙫𝙖𝙡 𝙨𝙘𝙝𝙚𝙙𝙪𝙡𝙚𝙨

👉reinforcement occurs only if a fixed amount of time has passed since the previous reinforcer.
4. 𝙫𝙖𝙧𝙞𝙖𝙗𝙡𝙚 𝙞𝙣𝙩𝙚𝙧𝙫𝙖𝙡 𝙨𝙘𝙝𝙚𝙙𝙪𝙡𝙚𝙨

👉 reinforcement occurs only if a variable

amount of time has passed since the

previous reinforcer.

🌸 𝕡𝕦𝕟𝕚𝕤𝕙𝕞𝕖𝕟𝕥
• is a stimulus that weakens the response or makes it less likely to recur.

• Punishers can be any aversive (unpleasant) stimuli that weaken responses or make them unlikely to recur.

• Immediacy, consistency and intensity matter are important for effectiveness of punishment.

• Like reinforcers, punishers can also be

👉 Primary punishers (Pain and extreme heat or cold are inherently punishing
👉 Secondary punishers (criticism, demerits, catcalls, scolding, fines, and bad grades)
🌸 𝕤𝕙𝕒𝕡𝕚𝕟𝕘
👉 is an operant conditioning procedure in which successive approximations of a desired response are reinforced.
👉 In shaping you start by reinforcing a tendency in the right direction. Then you gradually require responses that are more and more similar to
the final desired response.

👉 The responses that you reinforce on the way to the final one are called successive
approximations.

🌸 𝕤𝕠𝕔𝕚𝕒𝕝 𝕝𝕖𝕒𝕣𝕟𝕚𝕟𝕘 𝕥𝕙𝕖𝕠𝕣𝕪 (𝕠𝕓𝕤𝕖𝕣𝕧𝕒𝕥𝕚𝕠𝕟𝕒𝕝 𝕝𝕖𝕒𝕣𝕟𝕚𝕟𝕘 𝕥𝕙𝕖𝕠𝕣𝕪)

• Developed by Albert Bandura

• Which is learning by watching the behavior of another person, or model.

• Learning rely on a social phenomenon—it is often referred to as a social cognitive approach to learning

• Emphasis on interaction of behavior, environment, and person (cognitive) factors as determinants of learning

• Three forms of reinforcement that can encourage observational learning

👉 direct reinforcement
👉 vicarious reinforcement
👉 Self-reinforcement
1. 𝙙𝙞𝙧𝙚𝙘𝙩 𝙧𝙚𝙞𝙣𝙛𝙤𝙧𝙘𝙚𝙢𝙚𝙣𝙩

• When the observer may reproduce the behaviors of the model and receive direct reinforcement.

2. 𝙫𝙞𝙘𝙖𝙧𝙞𝙤𝙪𝙨 𝙧𝙚𝙞𝙣𝙛𝙤𝙧𝙘𝙚𝙢𝙚𝙣𝙩

• When the observer may reproduce the behaviors of the model but the reinforcement need not be direct

-it may be vicarious reinforcement as well.

• the observer may simply see others reinforced for a particular

behavior and then increase his or her production of that behavior.

3. 𝙨𝙚𝙡𝙛-𝙧𝙚𝙞𝙣𝙛𝙤𝙧𝙘𝙚𝙢𝙚𝙣𝙩

- Or controlling your reinforcers.

- Important for improve, value and enjoy their growing competence.

Four Conditions

1. 𝙖𝙩𝙩𝙚𝙣𝙩𝙞𝙤𝙣

- the person must first pay attention to the model.

2.𝙧𝙚𝙩𝙚𝙣𝙩𝙞𝙤𝙣

- the observer must be able to remember the behavior that has been observed (rehearsal).

3.𝙢𝙤𝙩𝙤𝙧 𝙧𝙚𝙥𝙧𝙤𝙙𝙪𝙘𝙩𝙞𝙤𝙣

- the ability to replicate the behavior that the model has just demonstrated.

4.𝙢𝙤𝙩𝙞𝙫𝙖𝙩𝙞𝙤𝙣

- learners must want to demonstrate what they have learned.

🌸𝕔𝕠𝕘𝕟𝕚𝕥𝕚𝕧𝕖 𝕝𝕖𝕒𝕣𝕟𝕚𝕟𝕘 𝕥𝕙𝕖𝕠𝕣𝕪

🍄Cognitive processes are thus the mental processes involved in knowing about the world:- as such they are important in
perception, attention, thinking, problem solving, and memory.

Cognitive learning may take two forms:

1. 𝙡𝙖𝙩𝙚𝙣𝙩 𝙡𝙚𝙖𝙧𝙣𝙞𝙣𝙜
2. 𝙞𝙣𝙨𝙞𝙜𝙝𝙩 𝙡𝙚𝙖𝙧𝙣𝙞𝙣𝙜 (gestalt learning or perceptual learning)

1.𝙡𝙖𝙩𝙚𝙣𝙩 𝙡𝙚𝙖𝙧𝙣𝙞𝙣𝙜

👉 Latent‘ means hidden

• Is learning that occurs but is not evident in

behavior until later, when conditions for its

appearance are favorable.

• It occur without reinforcement of particular

responses and seems to involve changes in the way information is processed.

• learning that is not immediately expressed.

• A great deal of human learning also remains

latent until circumstances allow or require it to be expressed.

2. 𝙞𝙣𝙨𝙞𝙜𝙝𝙩 𝙡𝙚𝙖𝙧𝙣𝙞𝙣𝙜

👉 It is a cognitive process whereby we reorganize our perception of a problem.

• In a typical insight situation where 𝙖𝙨 problem is posed, a period follows during which no apparent progress is made, and then the solution
comes suddenly.

• Human beings who solve a problem insightfully usually experience a good feeling called an 'aha' experience.

• Sometimes, for example, people even wake up from sleep with a solution to a problem that they had not been able to solve during the day.

✍️𝕞𝕖𝕞𝕠𝕣𝕪
🌺𝙢𝙚𝙖𝙣𝙞𝙣𝙜 𝙖𝙣𝙙 𝙥𝙧𝙤𝙘𝙚𝙨𝙨𝙚𝙨 𝙤𝙛 𝙢𝙚𝙢𝙤𝙧𝙮
• It is the retention of information/what is learned earlier over time.

• It is the way in which we record the past for later use in the present.

• Memory is a blanket label for a large number of processes that form the bridges between our past and our present.

🌺𝙥𝙧𝙤𝙘𝙚𝙨𝙨𝙚𝙨 𝙤𝙛 𝙢𝙚𝙢𝙤𝙧𝙮
• It is the mental activities we perform to put information into

memory, to keep it there, and to make use of it later.

• This involves three basic steps:

a) Encoding

b) Storage

c) Retrieval

A)Encoding

👉 the term encoding refers to the form (i.e. the code) in which an item of information is to be placed in memory.
👉 the process by which information is initially recorded in a form usable to memory.
👉 In encoding we transform a sensory input into a form or a memory code that can be further processed.
b) Storage

👉To be remembered the encoded experience must leave some record in the nervous system (the memory trace); it must be squirreled away and
held in some more or less enduring form for later use.

👉 Storage is the persistence of information in memory.

c) Retrieval

👉 is the point at which one tries to remember to dredge up a particular memory trace from among all the others we have stored.
Hayat, [12/28/2025 10:34 AM]
- In retrieval, material in memory storage is located, brought into awareness and used.

🍄 𝙢𝙚𝙢𝙤𝙧𝙮 is the process by which information is encoded (phase 1), stored (phase 2) and later retrieved (phase 3).
Stages/Structure of Memory

According to Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968), memory has three

structures:

1. Sensory Memory/Sensory Register

2. Short-Term Memory

3. Long Term Memory

1.𝕤𝕖𝕟𝕤𝕠𝕣𝕪 𝕞𝕖𝕞𝕠𝕣𝕪

• It is the entry way to memory (first information storage area).

• It acts as a holding bin, retaining information until we can select items for attention.

• It gives us a brief time to decide whether information is extraneous or important.

• It can hold virtually all the information reaching our senses for a brief time.

• For instance,

👉 Visual images (Iconic memory) remain in the visual system for a maximum of one second.
👉 Auditory images (Echoic memory) remain in the auditory system for a slightly longer time, by most estimates up to two second or so.
• Information is accurate representation of the

environmental information but unprocessed.

• However, some of the information that has got attention and recognition pass on short-term memory for further

processing.

2. 𝕤𝕙𝕠𝕣𝕥 𝕥𝕖𝕣𝕞 𝕞𝕖𝕞𝕠𝕣𝕪

• It holds the contents of our attention.

• It consist memories of the by-products or end results of perceptual analysis.

• Also called working memory, immediate memory, active memory, and primary memory.

• It has four characteristics:

👉 It is active (workspace to process new information )there is consciously processing, examining, or manipulating information
👉 Rapid accessibility: Information is readily available for use
👉 Preserves the temporal sequence of information: maintain the information in sequential manner for a temporary period of
time

👉 Limited capacity: the magic number seven plus or minus 2

🌺 𝙘𝙝𝙪𝙣𝙠𝙞𝙣𝙜
✍️grouping or packing of information into higher order units that can be remembered as single units.
- It expands working memory by making large amounts of information more manageable.

- The real capacity of short-term memory, therefore, is not a few bits of information but a few chunks.

• STM memory holds information received from SM for up to about 30 seconds by most estimates.

• It is possible to prolong STM indefinitely by rehearsal- the conscious repetition of information.

• Material in STM is easily displaced unless we do something to keep it there.

3. 𝕝𝕠𝕟𝕘 𝕥𝕖𝕣𝕞 𝕞𝕖𝕞𝕠𝕣𝕪

• It is a memory system used for the relatively permanent storage of meaningful information.
• The capacity of LTM seems to have no practical limits.

• The vast amount of information stored in LTM enables us to learn, get around in the environment, and build a sense of identity and personal
history.

• LTM stores information for indefinite periods. It may last for days, months, years, or even a lifetime.

𝙨𝙪𝙗 𝙨𝙮𝙨𝙩𝙚𝙢 𝙤𝙛 𝙡𝙩𝙢

• 𝙙𝙚𝙘𝙡𝙖𝙧𝙖𝙩𝙞𝙫𝙚/𝙚𝙭𝙥𝙡𝙞𝙘𝙞𝙩 𝙢𝙚𝙢𝙤𝙧𝙮- the conscious recollection of information such as specific facts or events that can be verbally communicated.

Divided into two:

🍄𝙨𝙚𝙢𝙖𝙣𝙩𝙞𝙘 𝙢𝙚𝙢𝙤𝙧𝙮- factual knowledge like the meaning of words, concepts and our ability to do math. They are internal
representations of the world, independent of any particular context.

–🍄𝙚𝙥𝙞𝙨𝙤𝙙𝙞𝙘 𝙢𝙚𝙢𝙤𝙧𝙮 - memories for events and situations from personal experience. They are internal representations of personally
experienced events.

👉Non-declarative/ implicit memory- behavior is affected by prior experience without that experience being consciously recollected.
One of the most important kinds of implicit memory is procedural memory. It is the how to knowledge of procedures or skills: Knowing

how to comb your hair, use a pencil, or swim.

🌺𝙨𝙚𝙧𝙞𝙖𝙡 𝙥𝙤𝙨𝙞𝙩𝙞𝙤𝙣 𝙚𝙛𝙛𝙚𝙘𝙩

• The three-box model of memory is often invoked to explain interesting phenomenon called the serial

position effect.

• If you are shown a list of items and are then asked immediately to recall them, your retention of any particular item will depend on its position
in the list.

• That is, recall will be best for items at the beginning of the list (the primacy effect) and at the end of the list

(the recency effect).

🍄Factors Affecting Memory

👉Ability to retain: good memory traces left in the brain by past
experiences.

👉Good health: good health can retain the learnt material better
👉Age of the learner: Youngsters can remember better than the aged.
👉Maturity: Very young children cannot retain and remember complex material.
👉Will to remember: Willingness to remember helps for better retention
👉Intelligence: More intelligent person will have better memory
👉Interest: will learn and retain better.
👉 Over learning: over learning will lead to better memory.
👉Speed of learning: Quicker learning leads to better retention,
👉Meaningfulness of the material: it remain in our memory for longer
period

👉 Sleep or rest: after learning strengthens connections in the brain and

helps for clear memory.

🌸𝕗𝕠𝕣𝕘𝕖𝕥𝕥𝕚𝕟𝕘
• The apparent loss of information already encoded and stored in the long-term memory.

• The first attempts to study forgetting were made by German psychologist Hermann Ebbinghaus

(1885/1913).
• There is almost always a strong initial decline in memory, followed by a more gradual drop over time.

• Furthermore, relearning of previously mastered material is almost always faster than starting from a scratch

🌺𝙩𝙝𝙚𝙤𝙧𝙮 𝙤𝙛 𝙛𝙤𝙧𝙜𝙚𝙩𝙩𝙞𝙣𝙜
• Psychologists have proposed five mechanisms to account for forgetting:

1) The Decay Theory

2) Replacement of old memories by new ones

3) Interference

4) Motivated forgetting

5) Cue dependent forgetting

🍄𝙩𝙝𝙚 𝙙𝙚𝙘𝙖𝙮 𝙩𝙝𝙚𝙤𝙧𝙮

• memory traces or engram fade with time if they are not accessed now and then.

• In decay, the trace simply fades away with nothing left behind, because of the passage of time.

🍄𝙞𝙣𝙩𝙚𝙧𝙛𝙚𝙧𝙚𝙣𝙘𝙚 𝙩𝙝𝙚𝙤𝙧𝙮
• It occurs because similar items of information interfere with one another in either storage or retrieval.

• There are two kinds of interference :

👉 In 𝙥𝙧𝙤𝙖𝙘𝙩𝙞𝙫𝙚 𝙞𝙣𝙩𝙚𝙧𝙛𝙚𝙧𝙚𝙣𝙘𝙚 information learned earlier interferes with recall of newer material.
👉𝙧𝙚𝙩𝙧𝙖𝙤𝙘𝙩𝙞𝙫𝙚 𝙞𝙣𝙩𝙚𝙧𝙛𝙚𝙧𝙚𝙣𝙘𝙚 ,If new information interferes with the ability to remember old information
🍄𝙣𝙚𝙬 𝙢𝙚𝙢𝙤𝙧𝙮 𝙛𝙤𝙧 𝙤𝙡𝙙 𝙙𝙞𝙨𝙥𝙡𝙖𝙘𝙚𝙢𝙚𝙣𝙩 𝙩𝙝𝙚𝙤𝙧𝙮
- 👉This theory holds that new information entering memory can wipe out old information, just as recording on an audio

or videotape will obliterate/wipe out the original material.

🍄𝙢𝙤𝙩𝙞𝙫𝙖𝙩𝙚𝙙 𝙛𝙤𝙧𝙜𝙚𝙩𝙩𝙞𝙣𝙜
-👉Sigmund Freud maintained that people forget because they block from consciousness those memories that are too

threatening or painful to live with, and he called this self-protective processRepression.

🍄𝙘𝙪𝙚 𝙙𝙚𝙥𝙚𝙣𝙙𝙚𝙣𝙩 𝙛𝙤𝙧𝙜𝙚𝙩𝙩𝙞𝙣𝙜

👉When we lack retrieval cues, we may feel as if we have lost the call number for an entry in the mind‘s library.
👉𝙞n long-term memory, this type of memory failure may be the most common type of [Link] 2
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𝕔𝕙𝕒𝕡𝕥𝕖𝕣 4:𝕞𝕠𝕥𝕚𝕧𝕒𝕥𝕚𝕠𝕟 𝕒𝕟𝕕 𝕖𝕞𝕠𝕥𝕚𝕠𝕟

👉 𝙢𝙤𝙩𝙞𝙫𝙖𝙩𝙞𝙤𝙣 refers to the factors that initiate, direct, and sustain behavior to meet physical or psychological needs.
·𝙩𝙮𝙥𝙚𝙨 𝙤𝙛 𝙢𝙤𝙩𝙞𝙫𝙖𝙩𝙞𝙤𝙣

👉𝙞𝙣𝙩𝙧𝙞𝙣𝙨𝙞𝙘: Acting for internal satisfaction.

👉𝙚𝙭𝙩𝙧𝙞𝙣𝙨𝙞𝙘: Acting for external rewards.
🌸𝕥𝕙𝕖𝕠𝕣𝕚𝕖𝕤 𝕠𝕗 𝕞𝕠𝕥𝕚𝕧𝕒𝕥𝕚𝕠𝕟:
1. 𝙞𝙣𝙨𝙩𝙞𝙣𝙘𝙩 𝙩𝙝𝙚𝙤𝙧𝙮: Behavior driven by innate biological patterns.

2. 𝙙𝙧𝙞𝙫𝙚-𝙧𝙚𝙙𝙪𝙘𝙩𝙞𝙤𝙣 𝙩𝙝𝙚𝙤𝙧𝙮: Motivation arises from needs (e.g., hunger) creating tension (drive) that we seek to reduce.

3. 𝙖𝙧𝙤𝙪𝙨𝙖𝙡 𝙩𝙝𝙚𝙤𝙧𝙮: People seek to maintain an optimal level of stimulation.

4. 𝙞𝙣𝙘𝙚𝙣𝙩𝙞𝙫𝙚 𝙩𝙝𝙚𝙤𝙧𝙮: Motivation is pulled by external rewards.

5. 𝙘𝙤𝙜𝙣𝙞𝙩𝙞𝙫𝙚 𝙩𝙝𝙚𝙤𝙧𝙮: Motivation stems from thoughts, beliefs, and expectations.

6. 𝙝𝙪𝙢𝙖𝙣𝙨𝙩𝙞𝙘 𝙩𝙝𝙚𝙤𝙧𝙮: (Maslow’s Hierarchy): Needs range from basic (physiological) to higher-order (self-actualization).

🌺𝕔𝕠𝕟𝕗𝕝𝕚𝕔𝕥 𝕠𝕗 𝕞𝕠𝕥𝕚𝕧𝕖𝕤:
👉𝙖𝙥𝙥𝙧𝙤𝙖𝙘𝙝-𝙖𝙥𝙥𝙧𝙤𝙖𝙘𝙝: Choosing between two desirable options.
👉𝙖𝙫𝙤𝙞𝙙𝙖𝙣𝙘𝙚-𝙖𝙫𝙤𝙞𝙙𝙖𝙣𝙘𝙚: Choosing between two undesirable options.
👉𝙖𝙥𝙥𝙧𝙤𝙖𝙘𝙝-𝙖𝙫𝙤𝙞𝙙𝙖𝙣𝙘𝙚: A single option has both positive and negative aspects.
👉𝙢𝙪𝙡𝙩𝙞𝙥𝙡𝙚 𝙖𝙥𝙥𝙧𝙤𝙖𝙘𝙝-𝙖𝙫𝙤𝙞𝙙𝙖𝙣𝙘𝙚: Multiple options each have pros and cons.
🌺𝙚𝙢𝙤𝙩𝙞𝙤𝙣𝙨 𝙘𝙤𝙣𝙨𝙞𝙨𝙩 𝙤𝙛 𝙩𝙝𝙧𝙚𝙚 𝙚𝙡𝙚𝙢𝙚𝙣𝙩𝙨:
1. 𝙥𝙝𝙮𝙨𝙞𝙤𝙡𝙤𝙜𝙞𝙘𝙖𝙡 𝙖𝙧𝙤𝙪𝙨𝙖𝙡: (e.g., increased heart rate).

2. 𝙗𝙚𝙝𝙖𝙫𝙞𝙤𝙧𝙡 𝙚𝙭𝙥𝙧𝙚𝙨𝙨𝙞𝙤𝙣: (e.g., facial expressions).

3. 𝙨𝙪𝙗𝙟𝙚𝙘𝙩𝙞𝙫𝙚 𝙚𝙭𝙥𝙚𝙧𝙞𝙚𝙣𝙘𝙚:(cognitive labeling of feelings).

🌺𝕥𝕙𝕖𝕠𝕣𝕚𝕖𝕤 𝕠𝕗 𝕖𝕞𝕠𝕥𝕚𝕠𝕟
1. 𝙟𝙖𝙢𝙚𝙨-𝙡𝙖𝙣𝙜𝙚 𝙩𝙝𝙚𝙤𝙧𝙮: Emotions arise from physiological arousal.

2. 𝙘𝙖𝙣𝙣𝙤𝙣-𝙗𝙖𝙧𝙙 𝙩𝙝𝙚𝙤𝙧𝙮: Physiological arousal and emotional experience occur simultaneously.

3. 𝙨𝙘𝙝𝙖𝙘𝙝𝙩𝙚𝙧-𝙨𝙞𝙣𝙜𝙚𝙧(𝙘𝙤𝙜𝙣𝙞𝙩𝙞𝙫𝙚 𝙖𝙧𝙤𝙪𝙨𝙖𝙡)𝙩𝙝𝙚𝙤𝙧𝙮: Emotions result from physiological arousal + cognitive interpretation.

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𝕔𝕙𝕒𝕡𝕥𝕖𝕣 5: 𝕡𝕖𝕣𝕤𝕠𝕟𝕒𝕝𝕚𝕥𝕪

🌺𝙥𝙚𝙧𝙨𝙤𝙣𝙖𝙡𝙞𝙩𝙮: is the unique, enduring pattern of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors that characterize an individual.
🌸𝙩𝙝𝙚𝙤𝙧𝙮 𝙤𝙛 𝙥𝙚𝙧𝙨𝙤𝙣𝙖𝙡𝙞𝙩𝙮:
1. 𝙥𝙨𝙮𝙘𝙝𝙤𝙖𝙣𝙖𝙡𝙮𝙩𝙞𝙘 𝙩𝙝𝙚𝙤𝙧𝙮 (𝙛𝙧𝙚𝙪𝙙):

Personality consists of:

👉𝙞𝙙: Pleasure principle, unconscious desires.

👉𝙚𝙜𝙤: Reality principle, mediates between id and superego.
👉𝙨𝙪𝙥𝙚𝙧𝙚𝙜𝙤: Moral conscience.
👉𝙙𝙚𝙛𝙚𝙣𝙨𝙚 𝙢𝙚𝙘𝙝𝙖𝙣𝙞𝙨𝙢𝙨: Unconscious strategies (e.g., repression, denial, projection) used to manage conflict and anxiety.
2. 𝙩𝙧𝙖𝙞𝙩 𝙩𝙝𝙚𝙤𝙧𝙮:

👉 Personality is a combination of stable traits.

👉𝙛𝙞𝙫𝙚 𝙛𝙖𝙘𝙩𝙤𝙧 𝙢𝙤𝙙𝙚𝙡(𝙤𝙘𝙚𝙖𝙣):
· Openness

· Conscientiousness

· Extraversion

· Agreeableness

· Neuroticism

3. 𝙝𝙪𝙢𝙖𝙣𝙞𝙨𝙩𝙞𝙘 𝙩𝙝𝙚𝙤𝙧𝙮 (𝙧𝙤𝙜𝙚𝙧 & 𝙢𝙖𝙨𝙡𝙤𝙬): Focuses on self-actualization and personal growth.

👉Self-Concept: Composed of the real self and ideal self.

👉Positive Regard:
👉 Unconditional: Acceptance without conditions.
👉Conditional: Acceptance dependent on meeting [Link] 4 1.𝕤𝕖𝕝𝕗-𝕖𝕤𝕥𝕖𝕖𝕞
🍄"𝙚𝙨𝙩𝙚𝙚𝙢" is derived from the Latin aestimare,meaning to appraise,value,rate,weigh,estimate" and
🍄𝙨𝙚𝙡𝙛-𝙚𝙨𝙩𝙚𝙚𝙢 is our Cognitive and,above all,emotional appraisal of our own worth .
👉Self-esteem deals with the evaluative and emotional dimensions of the self [Link] evaluation or self-esteem refers to the evaluative and
affective aspects of the self-concept .
👉Self-esteem refers to an individuals overall [Link] is the judgment or opinion we hold about ourselves,it’s the extent to which we
perceive ourselves to be worthwhile and capable human beings.

👉, various aspects of self-Self-Esteem have been [Link], common to these subdivision is the distinction between (A) Self-esteem
based on a sense of competence,power,or efficacy and (B)self-esteem based on a sense of virtue or moral worth.

👉Competency-based self-esteem is tied closely to effective performance. As a result, it is associated with self attribution and social comparison
processes.

Self-esteem based on virtue (termed self-worth) is grounded in norms and values concerning personal and interpersonal conduct e.g justice,
reciprocity,and [Link] process of reflected appraisal contributes to the formation of self-worth.

𝙞𝙢𝙥𝙤𝙧𝙩𝙖𝙣𝙘𝙚: Self-esteem affects motivation, mental health, relationships, decision-making, and performance. Healthy self-esteem supports well-
being, while very low or unrealistically high self-esteem can cause problems.

2,𝕖𝕞𝕠𝕥𝕚𝕠𝕟𝕒𝕝 𝕚𝕟𝕥𝕖𝕝𝕝𝕚𝕘𝕖𝕟𝕔𝕖

🍄𝙚𝙢𝙤𝙩𝙞𝙤𝙣𝙖𝙡 𝙞𝙣𝙩𝙚𝙡𝙡𝙞𝙜𝙚𝙣𝙘𝙚 is the ability to identify, understand, manage, and express emotions appropriately, both in oneself and in others. It helps
individuals respond to situations calmly, wisely, and empathetically rather than reacting impulsively.

🍄𝙚𝙢𝙤𝙩𝙞𝙤𝙣𝙖𝙡 𝙞𝙣𝙩𝙚𝙡𝙡𝙞𝙜𝙚𝙣𝙘𝙚 includes at least three skills:

emotional awareness, or the ability to identify and name one’s emotion; the ability to harness those emotions and apply them to tasks like
thinking and problem solving ; and the ability to mange emotions, which includes both regulating one’s own emotions when necessary and
helping others to do the same.

Components of Emotional Intelligence

Self-Awareness

👉The ability to recognize one’s own emotions and understand how they affect thoughts, behavior, and decisions. Self-aware people know their
strengths and weaknesses.

Self-Regulation

👉The ability to control or redirect negative emotions such as anger, fear, or frustration. It includes staying calm under pressure and thinking
before acting.

Motivation

👉The ability to use emotions to stay focused on goals. Emotionally intelligent people are self-driven, optimistic, and persistent even when facing
difficulties.

Empathy

👉The ability to understand and share the feelings of others. Empathy helps in showing care, respecting different perspectives, and responding
sensitively to others’ needs.

Social Skills

The ability to build and maintain healthy relationships. It includes effective communication, cooperation, conflict resolution, and leadership
skills.

👉The process and outcomes of Emotional Intelligence and it's development also contain many elements known to reduce [Link]
understanding and relationships, fostering stability, continuity, and harmony helps to develop emotional intelligence family, organization and
society. 3.𝕤𝕥𝕣𝕖𝕤𝕤 𝕞𝕒𝕟𝕒𝕘𝕖𝕞𝕖𝕟𝕥

👉𝙨𝙩𝙧𝙚𝙨𝙨 has no single definition and is understood differently by different researchers. It may refer to threatening situations, a person’s response
to such situations, or the experience of being threatened by adverse circumstances.

👉𝙨𝙩𝙧𝙚𝙨𝙨 is subjective, meaning people respond differently to the same situation.

👉The level of stress depends on how a person appraises and evaluates environmental events. Stress occurs when a person feels that the
demands of a situation exceed his or her available resources.

👉A 𝙨𝙩𝙧𝙚𝙨𝙨𝙤𝙧 is anything that causes stress. Stressors are broadly classified into chronic and acute. Chronic stressors last for a long period, such as
long-term illness, unemployment, or imprisonment. Acute stressors arise from sudden and brief events, like an accident or injury.

👉𝙨𝙩𝙧𝙚𝙨𝙨𝙤𝙧𝙨 may vary in type and intensity and include major traumatic events, significant life changes, daily hassles, and situations involving
continuous threat, challenge, or danger

👉𝙨𝙩𝙧𝙚𝙨𝙨 𝙢𝙖𝙣𝙖𝙜𝙚𝙢𝙚𝙣𝙩 refers to the methods and strategies used to control, reduce, and cope with stress so that it does not harm physical or
mental health. Stress occurs when a person feels unable to meet the demands of a situation.

🌸 𝕚𝕞𝕡𝕠𝕣𝕥𝕒𝕞𝕔𝕖 𝕠𝕗 𝕤𝕥𝕣𝕖𝕤𝕤 𝕞𝕒𝕟𝕒𝕘𝕖𝕞𝕖𝕟𝕥

👉Effective stress management helps improve mental well-being, physical health, productivity, decision-making, and quality of life.
👉Stress cannot be completely avoided, but with proper stress management skills, individuals can handle stres effectively and live a healthier,
balanced lifeQuestion 5: Analyze coping mechanisms and resilience strategies

👉𝙘𝙤𝙥𝙞𝙣𝙜 𝙢𝙚𝙘𝙝𝙖𝙣𝙞𝙨𝙢; conscious or unconscious strategies used to manage stressful situations and negative emotions.
They can be adaptive (healthy) or maladaptive (unhealthy).

👉𝙧𝙚𝙨𝙞𝙡𝙞𝙚𝙣𝙘𝙚: the capacity to recover quickly from difficulties to adapt and to grow in the face of adversity.
It is not the absence of distress but the process of navigating it [Link] Effective time management,note taking and study skills

1.𝙩𝙞𝙢𝙚 𝙢𝙖𝙣𝙖𝙜𝙚𝙢𝙚𝙣𝙩

👉𝙩𝙞𝙢𝙚 𝙢𝙖𝙣𝙖𝙜𝙚𝙢𝙚𝙣𝙩 is the ability to plan and control how someone spends the hours in a day to accomplish his or her goal effectively.
This involves deal with time between the domain of life:work,home,social life,and hobbies.

👉Good time management as deciding what someone wants to get out of life and effeciently per suing these goals
Time management does not mean being busy all the time.

🌺-𝙞𝙢𝙥𝙤𝙧𝙩𝙖𝙣𝙘𝙚
👉Reduces stress and last minute pressure.
👉Help balance schoolwork,rest and pressure.
👉Improves academic performance.
👉Effective Time Management techiniques
Breaking large tasks into smaller steps.

👉creating adaily or weekly study schedule.

👉Setting priorities(important task first).
👉Avoiding distraction like excessive phone use.
2 𝙣𝙤𝙩𝙚-𝙩𝙖𝙡𝙠𝙞𝙣𝙜 𝙨𝙠𝙞𝙡𝙡𝙨

Note-taking is the skill of recording essential information from lectures, textbooks or discussion.

🍄𝙚𝙛𝙛𝙚𝙘𝙩𝙞𝙫𝙚 𝙣𝙤𝙩𝙚-𝙩𝙖𝙡𝙠𝙞𝙣𝙜
Writing key points instead of full sentences.

Highlighting or underlining improtant ideas.

Reviewing and organized notes after class.

3 𝕤𝕥𝕦𝕕𝕪 𝕤𝕜𝕚𝕝𝕝

are method used to learn understand and remember information effectively.

🍄effective study techniques:

👉practicing question and quizzes.
👉using mind maps and summaries.
👉taking short breaks to maintain [Link] 7
𝕥𝕖𝕔𝕟𝕚𝕢𝕦𝕖 𝕥𝕠 𝕠𝕧𝕖𝕣 𝕔𝕠𝕞𝕖 𝕥𝕖𝕤𝕥 𝕒𝕟𝕩𝕚𝕖𝕥𝕪

🌺 Test anxiety is a fear ,worry nervousness before or during an exam

- it can affect concentration and performance

It can be managed with right techniques

# 𝙨𝙚𝙫𝙚𝙧 𝙩𝙚𝙨𝙩 𝙖𝙣𝙭𝙞𝙚𝙩𝙮 𝙘𝙖𝙣 𝙘𝙖𝙪𝙨𝙚 𝙖 𝙝𝙤𝙨𝙩 𝙤𝙛 𝙥𝙧𝙤𝙗𝙡𝙚𝙢 𝙞𝙣 𝙨𝙩𝙪𝙙𝙚𝙣𝙩. those are

𝙥𝙝𝙮𝙨𝙞𝙘𝙖𝙡:- headache nausea or diarrhea, high temperature, shortness of breath heart beat and dry mouth

𝙚𝙢𝙤𝙩𝙞𝙤𝙣𝙖𝙡:excessive feeling of fear, disappointment, anger, depression and uncontrollable laugh

𝙗𝙚𝙝𝙖𝙫𝙞𝙤𝙧:-fidgeting, places and substance abuse.

𝙘𝙤𝙜𝙣𝙞𝙩𝙞𝙫𝙚:racing thoughts, going bank,difficulty in concentrating,negative self-talk&comparing self with other

🌸𝕙𝕠𝕨 𝕥𝕠 𝕔𝕠𝕟𝕥𝕣𝕠𝕝 𝕥𝕖𝕤𝕥 𝕒𝕟𝕩𝕚𝕖𝕥𝕪

𝙨𝙩𝙚𝙥 1: pay attention to your self talk

thought are the things that we say to ourselves without speaking out loud (self-talk)

𝙨𝙩𝙚𝙥 2: identify thoughts that lead to feeling of anxiety

It can take some time and practice to identify the specific thoughts that make you anxious

𝙨𝙩𝙚𝙥 3: challenge your "anxious " thinking

thinking something doesn't mean it is true or that it will happen. often our thoughts are just guesses and not actually facts

🌸𝕙𝕠𝕨 𝕥𝕠 𝕞𝕒𝕟𝕒𝕘𝕖𝕕 𝕥𝕖𝕤𝕥 𝕒𝕟𝕩𝕚𝕖𝕥𝕪

1, 𝙥𝙧𝙤𝙥𝙚𝙧 𝙥𝙧𝙚𝙥𝙖𝙧𝙖𝙩𝙞𝙤𝙣

👉well prepared reduces fear. Creator study timetable, revise regularly and practice with sample questions to grow confidence.
2, 𝙩𝙞𝙢𝙚 𝙢𝙖𝙣𝙖𝙜𝙚𝙢𝙚𝙣𝙩

👉Good time Management lowers stress and improves understanding

3, 𝙧𝙚𝙡𝙖𝙭𝙖𝙩𝙞𝙤𝙣 𝙩𝙚𝙘𝙝𝙣𝙞𝙦𝙪𝙚𝙨

👉Deep breathing, stretching or short mindfulness exercise can calm the mind before and during a test staying relaxed helps improves focus
4, 𝙝𝙚𝙖𝙡𝙩𝙝𝙮 𝙡𝙞𝙛𝙚 𝙨𝙩𝙮𝙡𝙚Healthy life style

👉Adequate sleep, regular exercise and healthy eating improve brain function and reduce anxiety
👉avoid excessive caffeine befor exam
5, 𝙚𝙭𝙖𝙢 𝙙𝙖𝙮 𝙨𝙩𝙧𝙖𝙩𝙚𝙜𝙚𝙞𝙨

👉read instructions carefully, start with easier questions, manage time wisely and avoid comparing yourself with others during the exam
🌸𝕚𝕞𝕡𝕠𝕣𝕥𝕒𝕟𝕔𝕖 𝕘𝕠𝕒𝕝 𝕠𝕗 𝕤𝕖𝕥𝕥𝕚𝕟𝕘
𝙜𝙤𝙖𝙡 𝙨𝙚𝙩𝙩𝙞𝙣𝙜 𝙢𝙚𝙖𝙣𝙨 identify what you want to achieve and planning now to reach it

👉it plays a key role in academic success and personal growth

1,𝙥𝙧𝙤𝙥𝙚𝙧 𝙙𝙞𝙧𝙚𝙘𝙩𝙞𝙤𝙣

👉goals give a clear sense of purpose and help students focus on what is important, reducing confusion
2, 𝙞𝙣𝙘𝙧𝙚𝙖𝙨𝙚 𝙢𝙤𝙩𝙞𝙫𝙖𝙩𝙞𝙤𝙣

👉having specific goals encourages student to work harder and stay committed, even when tasks are challenging
3, 𝙞𝙢𝙥𝙧𝙤𝙫𝙚𝙨 𝙩𝙞𝙢𝙚 𝙢𝙖𝙣𝙖𝙜𝙚𝙢𝙚𝙣𝙩

👉goals helps planning study timetable effectively balancing school work with other activities
4, 𝙗𝙪𝙞𝙡𝙙𝙨 𝙘𝙤𝙣𝙛𝙞𝙙𝙚𝙣𝙘𝙚

👉achieving small goals boosts self-confidence and creates sense of accomplishment , which reduces anxiety
5, 𝙢𝙚𝙖𝙨𝙪𝙧𝙚𝙨 𝙥𝙧𝙤𝙜𝙧𝙚𝙨𝙨

👉goals allow students to tack their improvement and adjust strategies when needed
🌺Hellriegel , Slocum, Woodman and Martens (1992-1987) found the following to be the most important purposes of goal setting
👉guide and direct Behaviour
👉provide challenges and standards
👉help to improve performance
👉improve self-confidenceQuestion 8: Define social skills and explain their role in interpersonal relationships.
🌸𝙨𝙤𝙘𝙞𝙖𝙡 𝙨𝙠𝙞𝙡𝙡𝙨: are the learned abilities used to interact and communicate effectively with others in various social settings.
These include:

👉 verbal and non-verbal communication

👉active listening, empathy, cooperation, and
👉 conflict resolution.
🍄 In interpersonal relationships, social skills play a vital role by fostering trust, mutual understanding, and emotional connections between
individuals.

🍄 They enable people to form strong friendships, collaborate in teams, navigate family dynamics, and maintain professional partnership
successfully

🍄Strong social skills help resolve conflicts constructively, reduce misunderstandings, and promote positive outcomes in personal and social
interactions.

[Link] techniques far enhaning assetiveness

🌺𝙖𝙨𝙨𝙚𝙧𝙩𝙞𝙫𝙚𝙣𝙚𝙨𝙨 is a communicatian style

tmeans expressing felings thoughts, beliefs, and opnicns openly.

👉It respets the rights of others.

🍄𝙖𝙨𝙨𝙚𝙧𝙩𝙞𝙫𝙚𝙣𝙚𝙨𝙨 involves sefconfidence and a positive attitude.
👉Lack of assertiveness can cause low selfesteem.
🍄Passive communication mesns nat saying what we really think or feel.
This can lead to stress, anxiety, and resentment.

it may cause unheathy relationsthips

🌺𝙖𝙨𝙨𝙚𝙧𝙩𝙞𝙫𝙚 𝙗𝙚𝙝𝙖𝙫𝙞𝙤𝙧 𝙞𝙣𝙘𝙡𝙪𝙙𝙚

👉Being open in expressing wishes thoughts and feelings and encouraging others to do likewise
👉 Listening to the views of others and responding appropriately, whether in agreement with those views or not
👉Accepting responbilities and being able to delegate to others
👉Regularly expressing appreciaticn of others for what they have done or are doing.
👉Being able to admit to mistakes and apalogise
👉Maintaning selfcontrol.
👉Behaving as an equal to others.
Question 10

1. Conflict Resolution

Conflict resolution is the process of managing and solving disagreements in a peaceful and constructive way. Conflicts happen because people
have different opinions, needs, values, or interests. If conflicts are not handled well, they can lead to anger, violence, stress, or broken
relationships. When handled properly, conflict can improve understanding and cooperation.

🍄Causes of Conflict
Poor communication or misunderstanding

Differences in beliefs, values, or goals

Competition for limited resources

Emotional stress or frustration

🌸Methods of Conflict Resolution

👉Communication: Speaking clearly and listening actively to understand the other person’s point of view.
👉Negotiation: Each side gives and takes to reach a fair agreement.
👉Compromise: Both parties give up something to find a middle ground.
👉Collaboration: Working together to find a solution that satisfies everyone.
👉Mediation: A neutral third person helps both sides reach an agreement.
Example

Two employees disagree about how to complete a project. Instead of arguing, they discuss their ideas calmly, listen to each other, and agree on a
combined plan that uses the strengths of both ideas.

2. Strategies to Overcome Risky Behaviors

🍄Risky behaviors are actions that can harm a person’s physical health, mental well-being, social life, or future opportunities. Common risky
behaviors include substance abuse, unsafe sexual practices, reckless driving, violence, and skipping school.

Why People Engage in Risky Behaviors

👉Peer pressure
👉Lack of knowledge or awareness
👉Stress, anxiety, or emotional problems
👉Desire for acceptance or excitement
🍄Strategies to Overcome Risky Behaviors
👉Education and Awareness: Learning about the dangers and consequences of risky behaviors.
👉Developing Life Skills: Building decision-making, problem-solving, and self-control skills.
👉Positive Peer Influence: Choosing friends who encourage healthy behavior.
👉Avoiding Risky Situations: Staying away from environments that encourage harmful actions.
👉Seeking Support: Talking to parents, teachers, counselors, or health professionals.
👉Setting Goals: Focusing on future goals such as education and career to stay motivated.
Example

A teenager pressured to smoke refuses by saying no confidently, avoids friends who smoke, and joins a sports club to stay healthy and focused.

Conclusion

Conflict resolution helps people manage disagreements peacefully and maintain healthy relationships. Strategies to overcome risky behaviors
protect individuals from harm and help them make responsible choices. Both skills are essential for personal growth, safety, and a successful
future.

Tab 2