COMPUTER NETWORK

Unit-4
HTTP: HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol) is the foundational protocol used
for communication on the World Wide Web, enabling data transfer between a
client (like a browser) and a server.
How HTTP works
 Client sends a request: The client (e.g., a web browser) sends an HTTP
request to a server to perform an action, such as retrieving a web page or
submitting a form.
 Server processes the request: The server receives the request and
processes it based on the method and target resource.
 Server sends a response: The server sends back an HTTP response to
the client, which includes a status code (like 200 OK or 404 Not Found)
and the requested data or confirmation of the action.

HTTP Operations:
 GET: Retrieves a representation of the specified resource. For example, a
browser uses GET to fetch a web page to display it.
 POST: Submits data to be processed by the specified resource. This is
often used when submitting a form or uploading a file.
 PUT: Replaces the entire content of a resource with the data sent in the
request body. If no resource exists, a new one is created.
 DELETE: Removes the specified resource.
 PATCH: Used to apply partial modifications to a resource.
HTTP Structure:
An HTTP message has a structure of a start line, header fields, and an optional
body. An HTTP request includes a request line (with method, URI, and version),
headers (for metadata), and optionally a body (for data).
An HTTP response follows a similar format with a status line (with version,
status code, and text), headers (with response info), and optionally a body (with
the requested content).
HTTP request structure
 Start Line: This is the first line and includes:
 Method: The action to perform, like GET or POST.
 URI: The path to the resource on the server.
 HTTP-Version: The version of the HTTP protocol, such
as HTTP/1.1.
 Headers: Key-value pairs that provide additional context about the
request, such as the User-Agent (which identifies the client)
or Host (which specifies the domain name).
 Body: The optional section that contains the actual data being sent to the
server, such as form data in a POST request.

HTTP response structure

 Start Line (Status Line): This is the first line and includes:
o HTTP-Version: The version of the HTTP protocol.
o Status Code: A three-digit number indicating the result of the
request.
o Reason Phrase: A human-readable text explaining the status code.

Headers: Key-value pairs providing information about the response, such as the
Content-Type to tell the client what kind of data is in the body.
Body: The optional section that contains the resource requested by the client,
such as HTML code or an image.

HTTPS: HTTPS (Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure) is the secure version of

HTTP, used to transfer data between a web browser and a web server with
encryption and authentication. It ensures that communication is private and
protected from tampering or interception.
Working of HTTPS
HTTPS establishes the communication between the browser and the web server.
It uses the Secure Socket Layer (SSL) and Transport Layer Security (TLS)
protocol for establishing communication. The new version of SSL is
TLS(Transport Layer Security).

 HTTPS uses the conventional HTTP protocol and adds a layer of

SSL/TLS over it.
 The workflow of HTTPS remains the same, the browsers and servers still
communicate with each other using the HTTP protocol.
 However, this is done over a secure SSL connection. The SSL connection
is responsible for the encryption and decryption of the data that is being
exchanged to ensure data safety.

Operations of HTTPS:
 o GET (Secure): It Retrieves data from the server over an encrypted
channel.
o Example: GET [Link]
 POST (Secure): It Sends data securely to the server to create a resource.
o Example: POST [Link] with encrypted form
data.
 PUT (Secure): It Updates or replaces an existing resource securely.
o Example: PUT [Link]
 DELETE (Secure): It Removes a resource securely.
o Example: DELETE [Link]

o PATCH (Secure): It Applies partial updates securely.

o Example: PATCH [Link]

o HEAD (Secure): It Retrieves only headers securely, without the body.

o Example: HEAD [Link]

FTP: FTP (File Transfer Protocol) is one of the oldest and most widely used
protocols for transferring files between computers over a TCP/IP network such
as the Internet. The File Transfer Protocol is widely used in the application layer
of networking. It works at the application layer, ensuring that files are sent and
received securely.
Types of Connection in FTP
 Control Connection
 Data Connection
Control Connection
The control connection used for sending control information like user
identification, password, commands to change the remote directory, commands
to retrieve and store files, etc., FTP makes use of a control connection. The
control connection is initiated on port number 21.
Data connection
The Data connection used for sending the actual file, FTP makes use of a data
connection. A data connection is initiated on port number 20.

Types of FTP: There are different ways through which a server and a client do
a file transfer using FTP. Some of them are mentioned below:
 Anonymous FTP: Anonymous FTP is enabled on some sites whose files
are available for public access. A user can access these files without
having any username or password. Instead, the username is set to
anonymous, and the password is to the guest by default. Here, user access
is very limited. For example, the user can be allowed to copy the files but
not to navigate through directories.
 Password Protected FTP: A password-protected FTP server requires
users to authenticate with a username and password before accessing
files. This adds a security layer compared to anonymous FTP, where
anyone can connect without credentials.
 FTP Secure (FTPS): FTPS (FTP Secure) is an extension of the
traditional File Transfer Protocol (FTP) that adds encryption and
authentication using TLS (Transport Layer Security). It ensures that file
transfers are secure by protecting data and login credentials from being
intercepted during transmission.
  FTP over Explicit SSL/TLS (FTPES): FTPES (FTP over Explicit
SSL/TLS) is a secure version of FTP where the client explicitly requests
encryption using TLS/SSL after connecting to the server on the standard
FTP port (21).
This makes it flexible because the connection starts as plain FTP and is
then upgraded to a secure channel.

 Secure FTP (SFTP): SFTP (Secure File Transfer Protocol) is a secure

network protocol that uses SSH (Secure Shell) to transfer, access, and
manage files over a reliable data stream. It encrypts both commands and
data, ensuring confidentiality and integrity during file transfers.

How Does FTP Work:

FTP is a client server protocol that has two communication channel, command
channel for conversation control and data channel for file content.
Here are steps mentioned in which FTP works:
 A user has to log in to FTP Server first, there may be some servers where
you can access to content without login, known as anonymous FTP.
 Client can start a conversation with server, upon requesting to download a
file.
 The user can start different functions like upload, delete, rename, copy
files, etc. on server.

SMTP: Simple Mail Transfer Protocol, is the internet standard communication

protocol used for sending and receiving email messages between servers and
 mail clients. It is responsible for the transmission of emails, while other
protocols like IMAP or POP are used for retrieving them.
An SMTP server acts like a postman, relaying messages from the sender's mail
client to the recipient's mail server.

Types of SMTP:
1. End-to-End SMTP: End-to-End SMTP is one of the two delivery models of
the Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP). In this mode, the sending mail
server communicates directly with the recipient’s mail server to deliver the
email, without relying on intermediate servers. This type of SMTP is used in
Organization-to-organization.

2. Store-and-Forward SMTP: Store-and-Forward SMTP is the standard delivery

mechanism of the Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP), where email
messages are temporarily stored on intermediate mail servers before being
forwarded to their final destination. This ensures reliable delivery even if the
recipient’s server is unavailable at the time of sending. This Type of SMTP used
in Everyday email systems (Gmail, Outlook, etc.)

How does SMTP Work:

1. Sending Email:
 When a user wants to send an email, they use a User Agent (UA), like
Outlook or Gmail.
 The email is handed over to the MTA, which is responsible for
transferring the email to the recipient’s mail server.
2. SMTP Client and Server:
 Sender-SMTP (Client): The email sender’s MTA initiates the connection
to the recipient’s MTA (Receiver-SMTP).
 Receiver-SMTP (Server): The receiving MTA listens for incoming
connections and receives the email from the sender-SMTP.
 This communication happens over TCP port 25.
3. Relays and Gateways:
 Relays: In some cases, the email may pass through several intermediate
MTAs before reaching the destination server. These MTAs act as relays.
 Gateways: If the sending and receiving systems use different email
protocols (e.g., SMTP and non-SMTP), an email gateway can convert the
email to the appropriate format for delivery.

4. Email Delivery:
  The sender’s MTA sends the email to the receiver’s MTA, either directly
or through relays.
 The MTA uses the SMTP protocol to transfer the message. Once it’s
delivered to the destination MTA, the email is placed in the recipient’s
mailbox.
 The recipient’s User Agent (UA) can then download the email.

POP3: Post Office Protocol 3, is an email protocol that retrieves and downloads
emails from a mail server to a single device, allowing for offline access to those
messages. It is a simple, one-way protocol that typically deletes messages from
the server after they are downloaded, though this can be configured to leave a
copy. Because it lacks synchronization, POP3 does not keep emails in sync
across multiple devices.

Advantages
 Offline access:
Once emails are downloaded, they can be read even without an internet
connection.
 Storage:
Messages are stored on the local device, which can be useful for users who have
limited server storage.

Disadvantages
  Single-device access:
Emails are not synchronized across devices, so a message read on one computer
will appear as unread on another.
 Data loss:
If a device with downloaded emails is lost or crashes, the emails may be
permanently lost unless they were backed up separately.
 Limited functionality:
Features like "sent items" are not synchronized, and messages can't be
organized into folders on the server.

IMAP: IMAP (Internet Message Access Protocol) is a standard email protocol

that allows users to access and manage emails directly on the mail server,
keeping messages synchronized across multiple devices. Unlike POP3, which
downloads and often removes emails from the server, IMAP ensures that emails
remain stored centrally until explicitly deleted.

Advantage of IMAP:
  Multi-Device Access
o A user checks email on their phone, laptop, and office desktop.
o IMAP ensures that if they read or delete a message on one device,
the change reflects everywhere.
 Centralized Storage
o Emails remain on the server until explicitly deleted.
o Useful for organizations that want to maintain backups and
compliance records.
 Remote Access
o Users can log in from anywhere and see the same inbox structure.
o Ideal for travelers or remote workers.
 Folder Management
o IMAP supports creating, renaming, and organizing folders directly
on the server.
o Helps users keep emails categorized consistently across devices.
 Shared Mailboxes
o Teams can access a common mailbox (e.g.,
support@[Link]).
o IMAP ensures all team members see the same updated state of
messages.

Domain Name System:

The Domain Name System (DNS) is the internet's "phonebook" that translates
human-friendly domain names (like [Link]) into machine-readable
IP addresses (like [Link]).
This process is essential for navigating the internet, as computers use IP
addresses to identify and locate each other to deliver web pages and other
services.
Structure of DNS:
DNS Hierarchy Levels
1. Root Domain (.): The very top of the hierarchy, represented by a dot,
managed by root name servers.
2. Top-Level Domains (TLDs): The first level below the root, such
as .com, .org, .net, or country codes like .uk.
3. Second-Level Domains (SLDs): The unique domain name you register
(e.g., example in [Link]).
4. Subdomains: Optional, further divisions of your domain
(e.g., www, mail, support in [Link]).
5. Hosts: Specific devices or servers within a domain (e.g., a web server
at [Link]).

DNS resolution: DNS resolution is the process of converting a human-friendly

website domain name (like [Link]) into its corresponding machine-
readable IP address (like [Link]).
This is a crucial step for internet navigation because computers use numeric IP
addresses to communicate, and DNS acts as the internet's phone book,
performing this translation when a user requests a website.

Web Browsing:
Web browsing is the process of accessing and viewing information on the World
Wide Web using a software application called a web browser (e.g., Chrome,
Edge, Firefox, Safari). It involves retrieving web pages from servers and
displaying them to users in a readable format.
How Web Browsing Works (Step-by-Step)
1. User Input
o You type a URL (like [Link]) or a search query into
the browser.
 2. DNS Resolution
o The browser contacts the Domain Name System (DNS) to translate
the domain name into an IP address.
3. Connection Establishment
o The browser establishes a connection to the web server using
HTTPS (secure).
o HTTPS uses SSL/TLS encryption for secure communication.
4. Request and Response
o The browser sends an HTTP request to the server asking for a web
page.
o The server responds with the requested content (HTML, CSS,
JavaScript, images, etc.).
5. Rendering
o The browser interprets the HTML, applies styles (CSS), executes
scripts (JavaScript), and displays the page visually.
6. User Interaction
o we can click links, fill forms, watch videos, or navigate to other
pages.
o Each action may trigger new requests and responses.

Email Communication: Email communication is the process of sending and

receiving digital messages over the internet using standardized protocols. It is
one of the most widely used forms of communication in both personal and
professional contexts.
File Transfer: File transfer is the process of moving or copying data (files)
from one computer system to another over a network or between storage
devices. It’s a fundamental operation in networking and computing, enabling
sharing, backup, and collaboration.
Voice over IP (VoIP): VoIP (Voice over Internet Protocol) is a technology that
allows voice communication and multimedia sessions over the internet instead
of traditional telephone lines.
How VoIP Works
1. Conversion: Voice signals are converted into digital data packets.
2. Transmission: Packets are sent over IP networks (LAN, WAN, or the
internet).
3. Reception: At the receiver’s end, packets are reassembled into audio
signals.
4. Protocols Used: SIP (Session Initiation Protocol), RTP (Real-Time
Transport Protocol).

Advantages of VoIP
 Cost-effective compared to traditional telephony.
 Supports multimedia (voice, video, messaging).
 Flexible: works on computers, smartphones, IP phones.
 Scalable for businesses (conference calls, call forwarding, voicemail).

VoIP Applications: Skype, Zoom, Microsoft Teams, WhatsApp calls.

Streaming: Streaming is the continuous transmission of audio, video, or data

over the internet, allowing users to consume content in real-time without
downloading the entire file first

How Streaming Works

1. Encoding: Content is compressed into digital formats (MP3, MP4,
H.264).
2. Transmission: Data is sent in small packets over the internet.
 3. Buffering: Client software (like YouTube, Netflix, Spotify) stores a few
seconds of data to ensure smooth playback.
4. Playback: Content plays while more data continues to stream in.

Advantages of Streaming
 Instant access without waiting for downloads.
 Supports live broadcasts (sports, concerts, webinars).
 Adaptive streaming adjusts quality based on network speed.

Streaming Applications
 Video: YouTube, Netflix, Twitch.
 Audio: Spotify, Apple Music.
 Live: Facebook Live, Zoom webinars.

Software-Defined Networking (SDN): Software-Defined Networking (SDN)

is a modern approach to managing computer networks by separating the control
plane (decision-making) from the data plane (packet forwarding), enabling
centralized, programmable, and flexible network management.
What is a Data Plane?
All the activities involving and resulting from data packets sent by the end-user
belong to this plane. Data Plane includes:
 Forwarding of packets.
 Segmentation and reassembly of data.
 Replication of packets for multicasting.

What is a Control Plane?

The control plane is the part of a network that makes decisions about how data
should be forwarded, such as determining routes, building routing tables, and
managing network topology.

SDN Architecture: Software-Defined Networking (SDN) architecture is built

on three main layers Application, Control, and Infrastructure connected by open
APIs that enable centralized, programmable, and flexible network management.

Key Layers of SDN Architecture

1. Application Layer (Top Layer)
o Hosts SDN applications such as traffic engineering, security policies,
load balancing, and network analytics.
o Communicates with the control layer using Northbound APIs.
o Provides business logic and requirements to the controller.
2. Control Layer (Middle Layer)
o Contains the SDN Controller, the “brain” of the network.
o Translates application requirements into instructions for the
infrastructure layer.
o Uses Southbound APIs (e.g., OpenFlow) to communicate with
switches and routers.
o Provides centralized decision-making, topology discovery, and policy
enforcement.
3. Infrastructure Layer (Bottom Layer)
 Composed of physical and virtual switches/routers that forward packets.
 Executes instructions from the controller via programmable interfaces.
 Forms the data plane, responsible for actual packet forwarding.

Northbound APIs: Northbound APIs in SDN are the interfaces that connect the
SDN controller to applications, allowing software programs to request,
configure, and manage network behaviour without dealing directly with
hardware details.
Southbound APIs: Southbound APIs in SDN are the interfaces that connect the
SDN controller to the network devices (switches, routers, firewalls), enabling
the controller to push instructions down to the infrastructure layer.

Software-Defined Networking Impact on Networking

1. Centralized Control
 Traditional networks rely on distributed control across individual devices.
 SDN shifts decision-making to a central controller, simplifying
management and ensuring consistent policies across the entire network.
2. Agility and Flexibility
 Networks can be reconfigured dynamically through software rather than
manual device-by-device changes.
 This agility supports cloud computing, virtualization, and dynamic
workloads, making SDN ideal for modern enterprises.
3. Cost Efficiency
 SDN reduces dependency on expensive proprietary hardware.
 Commodity switches can be used, with intelligence handled by the
controller, lowering capital and operational costs.
4. Enhanced Security
 Centralized visibility allows faster detection of threats and easier
enforcement of security policies.
 SDN enables micro-segmentation, isolating workloads to minimize attack
surfaces.
5. Improved Performance
 Traffic can be optimized in real time, ensuring better load balancing,
Quality of Service, and bandwidth utilization.
 SDN supports automation that reduces human error and downtime.

Network Function Virtualization (NFV): Network Function Virtualization

(NFV) is a networking architecture concept that replaces dedicated hardware
appliances (like firewalls, load balancers, and routers) with software-based
functions running on standard servers.

Working of NFV:
Step-by-Step Working of NFV
Virtualization of Functions:
Network functions that used to require special hardware are converted into
Virtual Network Functions (VNFs).
Examples: Virtual firewall, virtual router, virtual load balancer.
NFV Infrastructure (NFVI):
VNFs run on a pool of standard servers, storage, and networking resources.
Hypervisors or container platforms (like VMware, KVM, Docker) provide the
virtualization environment.
Deployment of VNFs:
VNFs are installed as software applications on virtual machines or containers.
Multiple VNFs can run on the same server, reducing hardware needs.
Management and Orchestration (MANO)
A special framework called MANO manages the lifecycle of VNFs.
It handles provisioning, scaling, monitoring, and fault recovery.
Ensures VNFs are deployed where needed and resources are used efficiently.

Dynamic Scaling and Flexibility

VNFs can be scaled up or down depending on traffic demand.
New services can be launched quickly without waiting for hardware installation.

Network Function Virtualization Impact on Networking

1. Cost Reduction
 Traditional networks required expensive, single-purpose hardware
(firewalls, routers, load balancers).
 NFV replaces these with software-based functions running on standard
servers, lowering capital and operational costs.
2. Agility and Speed
 New services can be deployed in minutes instead of months because they
are software-based.
 Telecoms and enterprises can quickly roll out features like VPNs,
firewalls, or load balancers without waiting for hardware installation.
3. Scalability
 VNFs (Virtual Network Functions) can be scaled up or down depending
on traffic demand.
 This elasticity is crucial for cloud services, 5G networks, and IoT
applications.
4. Flexibility
 NFV supports multi-vendor environments, avoiding lock-in to proprietary
hardware.
 Functions can be moved across servers or data centres as needed.
5. Innovation
 NFV enables faster experimentation with new services.
 Telecom operators use NFV for 5G core networks, network slicing, and
edge computing, which weren’t feasible with rigid hardware setups.
Internet of Things (IoT):
The Internet of Things (IoT) refers to a network of interconnected physical
objects such as devices, machines, vehicles, or people embedded with sensors,
software, and unique identifiers that enable them to collect, exchange, and
process data over a network without requiring direct human-to-human or
human-to-computer interaction.

Core Components of IoT:

Devices & Sensors: These are the “things” in IoT—physical objects embedded
with sensors or actuators.
Sensors: Sensors collect data from the environment (temperature, motion, light,
GPS, etc.).
Actuators: Actuators perform actions based on instructions (turning on a motor,
adjusting a valve).
Example: A smart thermostat with a temperature sensor and actuator to control
heating.

Connectivity: These Devices need a way to send data to other systems.

Common technologies: Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, Zigbee, 4G/5G, LPWAN (LoRa, NB-
IoT).
Connectivity ensures seamless communication between devices, gateways, and
the cloud.
Example: A fitness tracker sending heart rate data via Bluetooth to a
smartphone.
Data Processing: The Raw data collected by sensors is processed either locally
(edge computing) or in the cloud.
Processing involves filtering, analyzing, and converting data into meaningful
insights.
Example: A smart car analyzing sensor data to detect obstacles and adjust speed.
User Interface (UI): The final step where processed data is presented to users.
It can be mobile apps, dashboards, or automated alerts.
Example: A mobile app showing your daily step count from a fitness tracker.

Working of IoT Devices

Step-by-Step Working of IoT Devices

1. Data Collection
o Sensors detect changes in the environment (e.g., a smart fridge
senses temperature).
2. Data Transmission
 o Information is sent through a network to a central system (cloud or
edge).
3. Data Analysis
o Algorithms analyse the data to identify patterns, anomalies, or
required actions.
4. Decision & Action
o The system sends instructions back to the device or other
connected systems.
o Example: A smart irrigation system turns on sprinklers when soil
moisture is low.
5. Feedback Loop
o Continuous monitoring ensures the system adapts and improves
over time.

Internet of Things Impact on Networking:

 Massive Device Density & Scalability: Networks must support
exponentially more connected devices, requiring significant upgrades in
capacity and management.
 Increased Data Traffic & Bandwidth: Billions of devices generate vast
amounts of data, stressing existing networks and necessitating high-
bandwidth, low-latency solutions.
 Address Space: The rapid growth of IoT necessitates the adoption of
IPv6 to provide enough unique IP addresses.
 Security Challenges: Each connected device expands the "attack
surface," making security paramount and complex due to potential
vulnerabilities in device software and interfaces.
 Shift Toward Edge Computing: To reduce congestion and latency,
more processing is done at the edge (near devices) instead of sending
everything to the cloud.