NISHANKAR DEBNATH

What is LVDT?
LVDT stands for Linear variable differential transformer. It is one of the major types of Inductive transducers.
LVDTs are considered the most accurate inductive sensors that measure displacement according to the polarity
and magnitude of the net induced electromotive force (EMF) and are therefore also known as linear variable
displacement sensors.

Types of LVDT

Linear Variable Differential Transformers (LVDTs) can be of many types based on their construction, size, and
specific applications. Here are some common types:-

AC LVDT: The AC LVDT is the most common and most used type of LVDT which operates on the principle
of electromagnetic induction (EMI) with AC as an input. AC LVDTs are widely used for displacement
measurement in various industrial applications.

DC LVDT: This type of LVDT operates with a DC (direct current) input. These types of LVDTs are used in
limited applications where a DC power source is more convenient.

Miniature LVDT: This type of LVDT is small in size as the name suggests miniature and its stroke length is
small but highly precise. There is Subminiature LVDTs also even smaller in size and best for limited-space
applications.

There can be many more LVDTs based on the requirement of the application like High-Temperature LVDTs,
Digital LVDTs, or Heavy-Duty High-Frequency Response LVDTs.

1|Page
NISHANKAR DEBNATH

Construction of LVDT

The transformer and LVDT share a similar construction. It consists of one primary winding(P) and two
secondary windings (S1 & S2). The primary and secondary windings are bounded by a hollow cylinder, known
as the former. The primary winding is at the center and the secondary windings are present on both sides of the
primary winding at an equal distance from the center. Both the secondary windings have an equal no. of terms
and they are linked with each other in series opposition, i.e. they are wounded in opposite directions, but are
connected in series with each [Link] entire coil assembly remains stationary during distance measurement.
The moving part of the LVDT is an arm made of magnetic material.

Working Principle of LVDT

The working of LVDT is based on Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction, which states that "the electrical
power in the network induction circuit is proportional to the rate of change of magnetic flux in the circuit."

As the primary winding of LVDT is connected to the AC power supply, The alternating magnetic field is
produced in the primary winding, which results in the induced EMF of secondary windings.

Let's assume that the induced voltages in the secondary windings S1 & S2 are E1 & E2 respectively. Now
according tousing the rate of change of magnetic flux i.e. dΦ/dt is directly proportional to the magnitude of
induced EMF i.e E1 and E2.

The total output voltage Eo in the circuit is given by Eo = E1-E2

Depending on the position of the core some cases arise:

Case 1: When The Core is Moving Towards S1

When the core of LVDT moves towards the second winding S1 then the flux linkage S will be more as
compared to S2. The EMF induced in S1 will be more than the EMF of S2. Hence E1 is greater than E & net

2|Page
NISHANKAR DEBNATH

differential voltage Eo(E1-E2) will be +ve. The means output voltage Vo will be in phase with input AC
voltage.

Case 2 : When the core is positioned at its null position

When the core is at a null position then the flux generated in both the secondary windings will be the same. The
induced EMF E1 & E2, and both the windings will be the same. Hence the net differential output voltage Eo
will be 0. It shows 0 displacement of the core.

Case 3 : When The Core Moving Towards S2

When the core of LVDT moves towards secondary winding S2 then the flux linkage with S2 will be more than
S1. It means the EMF induced in S2 will be more than the induced EMF of S1Hence E2 is greater than E1 &
net differential voltage Eo (E1-E2) will be negative. It means the output voltage will be out of phase input AC
voltage.

Uses of LVDT: Linear Variable Differential Transformers (LVDT) are mainly used for work or motion or
movement in many industries and research, they are also used in medicine and patient monitoring similarly in
many applications because of its ability of unique features and advantages

Advantages and Disadvantages of LVDT

Advantages of LVDT

 High output: For minute variations in the magnetic core position, LVDTs provide a high output.

 Low hysteresis: LVDTs are highly repeatable due to their extremely low hysteresis.

 Low electrical noise: Because LVDTs have sensing coils with low impedance, they can produce
extremely low electrical noise levels.

 Less power Consumption: LVDT's consume less power as compared to other Transducer's

Disadvantages of LVDT

 Since LVDT is an inductive transducer it is sensitive to the stray magnetic field, hence an extra setup is
required to protect from stray magnetic field.

 As LVDT is an electromagnetic device, it is also affected by vibrations and temperature.

Applications of LVDT

 It is mostly used in industries in the field of Automation, Aircraft, Turbines, Satellite, Hydraulics etc.

 LVDT is used to measure physical quantity such as force, tension, pressure weight, etc. here LVDT is
used as a secondary transducer.

3|Page
NISHANKAR DEBNATH

1. An AC LVDT (Linear Variable Differential Transformer) is characterized by the following

parameters: Input = 6.3 V, Output = 3.2 V, and a range of ±0.5 inches. Determine the following:

 Calculate the output voltage concerning core position for a core movement ranging from 0.45
inches to -0.30 inches.

 Find the output voltage when the core is positioned at -0.25 inches from the center.

4|Page
NISHANKAR DEBNATH

2. An AC LVDT has the following data. Input = 6.3 V, Output = 5.2 V, range ± 0.5 in. Determine

 (i) Calculate the output voltage vs core position for a core movement going from + 0.45 in. to - 0.30
in.
 (ii) The output voltage when the core is - 0.25 in. from the centre.

3. The output of an LVDT is connected to a 5V Voltmeter through an amplifier whose amplification

factor is 250. An output of 2 mV appears across the terminals of LVDT when the core moves through a
distance of 0.5 mm. Calculate the sensitivity of the LVDT and that of the whole set-up. The milli-
voltmeter scale has 100 division. The scale can be read to 1/5 of a division. Calculate the resolution of the
instrument in mm.

5|Page
NISHANKAR DEBNATH

RVDT
What is RVDT (Rotary Variable Differential Transformer)?
The RVDT stands for Rotary Variable Differential Transformer. It is one kind of
electromechanical transducer used to give the linear o/p which is proportional to the i/p angular
displacement. The main function of RVDT is to detect the angular displacement and converts it into
an electrical signal. The both the RVDT and LVDT workings are similar, but LVDT employs the
flexible iron core for displacement measurement whereas in RVDT employs a cam type core. This
core will turn among the two windings of the transformer using the shaft. Please refer the link to know
more about LVDT: Construction, working principle, advantages, disadvantages, and its applications.

Rotary Variable Differential Transformer

RVDT Construction and Its Working

RVDT transducer has two windings similar to a normal transformer such as primary winding and two
secondary windings shown in the following RVDT diagram. The two windings of the transformer
wounded, where the two secondary windings have an equivalent number of windings. These are
located on both sides of the primary winding of the transformer. A cam formed a magnetic core which
is made with a soft iron is coupled to a shaft. Thus, this core can be twisted among the windings. The
construction of both the RVDT and LVDT are similar but the main difference is the shape of the core
in transformer windings. This core will turn between the two windings of the transformer due to the
shaft.

1|Page
NISHANKAR DEBNATH

RVDT Construction

The typical RVDTs are linear over a +40 or -40 degrees, Sensitivity is about 2mV to 3mV per degree of rotation
and the input voltage range is 3V RMS at frequency ranges from 400Hz to 20kHz. Based on the movement of
the shaft in the transformer, the three conditions will be produced such as

When the Core is at Null Position

When the Core Rotates in Clockwise Direction
When the Core Rotates in Anticlockwise Direction
When the Core is at Null Position

In the first condition, when the shaft is placed at the null position then the induced e.m.f in the secondary
windings are similar although reverse in phase. Thus, the differential o/p potential will be zero, and the
condition will be E1 = E2, where E0 = E1-E2 =0

When the Core Rotates in Clockwise Direction

In the second condition, when the shaft rotates in the direction of clockwise; more section of the core will enter
across the primary winding. Therefore, the induced e.m.f across the primary winding is higher than secondary
winding. Hence, the differential o/p potential is positive, and the condition will be E1 > E2, where E0 = E1-E2
= positive.

When the Core Rotates in Anticlockwise Direction

In the third condition, when the shaft rotates in the direction of anticlockwise, more section of the core will be
entered across the secondary winding. Thus, the induced e.m.f across the secondary coil is higher than the
primary coil. Hence, the differential o/p potential is negative that means 1800 phase shift, and the condition will
be E1 < E2, where E0 = E1-E2 = negative.
2|Page
NISHANKAR DEBNATH

How to Choose RVDT?

The RVDTs have many advantages over other types of sensors. But, there are some parameters to be
considered in selecting the RVDT which include the following.
Accuracy
In some situations, RVDT accuracy is imperfect due to this reason it is not appropriate for some of the
application. Whenever the appliance needs high-accuracy sensors then the cost of the appliance will also be
enhanced.

Work Environment
RVDTs are very strong and they can work in any environment. Other types of sensors are not appropriate for
the conditions like a tremendous change in temperature, the presence of pollutants, or high sounds of vibration.

Backup Power Source

An RVDT needs an input of alternating current for generating the preferred analysis output. If there is
no backup power source, then an electromechanical sensor will not be a good choice.
Change of Signal
Nowadays, for some applications choose a sensor which can be used for changing the data into the readable
digital output on PC.

RVDT Advantages and Disadvantages

The advantages of RVDT include the following.

 The consistency of RVDT is high

 The exactness of RVDT is high
 The lifespan is long
 The performance is repeatable
 The construction is compact and strong
 Durability
 Low cost
 Easy to handle electronic components
 Resolution is infinite
 Linearity is Excellent
 A wide range of dimension ranges

The disadvantages of RVDT mainly include the following

 The contact among the measuring exterior as well as the nozzle is not possible for all time.
 The output of the RVDT is linear (about +40 or -40 degrees), so it restricts the usability.

RVDT Applications
The applications of RVDT include the following.

3|Page
NISHANKAR DEBNATH

 Fuel Valves as well as Hydraulic

 Modern machine tools
 Controls Cockpit
 Controls Fuel
 Ecological control systems

Selection Criteria
Choose LVDT when:

 Linear displacement measurement needed

 Wide range measurement required
 High accuracy and linearity essential
 Long-term stability important

Choose RVDT when:

 Direct angular measurement needed

 Limited angle measurement sufficient
 Contactless rotational sensing required
 Space constraints for rotational applications

Numericals:

Formulas to Remember:
1. Angular Displacement from Differential Output:

θ = (G × (Es21 + Es22)) / (Es21 - Es22)

2. Differential Output Voltage:

ΔEs22 = 2 × G × θ

Where:

 θ = Angular displacement (degrees)

 G = Sensitivity (volts per degree)
 Es21, Es22 = Output voltages from secondary windings
 ΔEs22 = Differential output voltage

4|Page
NISHANKAR DEBNATH

Problem 1

An RVDT has a sensitivity of 0.05 V/degree. The output voltages from the two secondary windings are Es21 =
3.2 V and Es22 = 2.8 V. Calculate the angular displacement of the rotor.

Problem 2

An RVDT has the following specifications:

 Sensitivity: 0.12 V/degree

 Primary excitation: 10 V, 5 kHz
 When the rotor is at null position, Es21 = Es22 = 5.0 V

If the rotor is displaced by 25° clockwise, calculate: a) The new values of Es21 and Es22 b) The differential
output voltage

Problem 3

An RVDT with sensitivity 0.075 V/degree is used in a position control system. The differential output voltage
measured is 1.8 V. Calculate: a) The angular displacement b) The individual secondary voltages if the sum
(Es21 + Es22) = 12 V

ANSWER:

RVDT Problems Solutions

Problem 1
Given:

 Sensitivity: 0.05 V/degree

 Es21 = 3.2 V
 Es22 = 2.8 V

Solution:

For an RVDT, the angular displacement is determined by the differential output voltage:

 Differential output voltage = Es21 - Es22 = 3.2 - 2.8 = 0.4 V

Angular displacement (θ) = Differential output voltage / Sensitivity θ = 0.4 V / 0.05 V/degree = 8 degrees

Since Es21 > Es22, the rotor is displaced in the direction that increases Es21.

5|Page
NISHANKAR DEBNATH

Problem 2
Given:

 Sensitivity: 0.12 V/degree

 Primary excitation: 10 V, 5 kHz
 At null position: Es21 = Es22 = 5.0 V
 Rotor displacement: 25° clockwise

Solution:

a) New values of Es21 and Es22:

When the rotor moves from null position, one secondary voltage increases while the other decreases by the
same amount.

Change in voltage = Sensitivity × Angular displacement Change in voltage = 0.12 V/degree × 25° = 3.0 V

For clockwise rotation (assuming standard convention):

 Es21 = 5.0 + 3.0 = 8.0 V

 Es22 = 5.0 - 3.0 = 2.0 V

b) Differential output voltage:

Differential output voltage = Es21 - Es22 = 8.0 - 2.0 = 6.0 V

Alternative calculation: Differential output = Sensitivity × Displacement = 0.12 × 25 = 6.0 V

Problem 3
Given:

 Sensitivity: 0.075 V/degree

 Differential output voltage: 1.8 V
 Sum of secondary voltages: Es21 + Es22 = 12 V

Solution:

a) Angular displacement:

θ = Differential output voltage / Sensitivity θ = 1.8 V / 0.075 V/degree = 24 degrees

b) Individual secondary voltages:

We have two equations:

6|Page
NISHANKAR DEBNATH

 Es21 - Es22 = 1.8 V (differential output)

 Es21 + Es22 = 12 V (given sum)

Adding these equations: 2 × Es21 = 13.8 V Therefore: Es21 = 13.8 / 2 = 6.9 V

Substituting back: Es22 = 12 - 6.9 = 5.1 V

Verification:

 Es21 - Es22 = 6.9 - 5.1 = 1.8 V ✓

 Es21 + Es22 = 6.9 + 5.1 = 12 V ✓

7|Page
Proximity Sensors

1. Definition
A proximity sensor is a device that detects the presence or absence of an object (target) within a
certain range without making any physical contact. It converts information about the motion or
presence of an object into an electrical signal.

2. Working Principle
Proximity sensors operate by emitting an electromagnetic field or a beam of electromagnetic
radiation (infrared, for instance), and observing changes in the field or return signal. When an
object enters the detection zone, the signal changes, which triggers a response from the sensor.

3. Types of Proximity Sensors

Proximity sensors can be broadly classified into the following types:

1. Inductive Proximity Sensors

2. Capacitive Proximity Sensors
3. Ultrasonic Proximity Sensors
4. Infrared (IR) Proximity Sensors
5. Magnetic Proximity Sensors
6. Laser Proximity Sensors

4. Working Principles of Each Type

1. Inductive Proximity Sensor

 Working Principle:
Uses electromagnetic induction to detect metallic objects. A coil inside the sensor
generates an oscillating magnetic field. When a metal object enters this field, eddy
currents are induced, altering the field and causing the sensor to trigger.

2. Capacitive Proximity Sensor

 Working Principle:
Works on the change in capacitance. It senses both metallic and non-metallic objects.
When a target enters the electric field of the sensor, the capacitance changes, and the
sensor detects the object.

3. Ultrasonic Proximity Sensor

 Working Principle:
Emits ultrasonic sound waves and measures the time taken for the echo to return after
hitting the object. The time difference is used to calculate the distance.
4. Infrared (IR) Proximity Sensor

 Working Principle:
Emits IR light and measures the reflection from nearby objects. If the reflected IR light is
detected by the photodiode, the sensor signals the presence of an object.

5. Magnetic Proximity Sensor

 Working Principle:
Detects the presence of magnetic materials or magnets. It contains a reed switch or Hall
effect sensor that gets activated in the presence of a magnetic field.

6. Laser Proximity Sensor

 Working Principle:
Uses a focused laser beam to detect distance and presence. Works on the principle of
triangulation or time-of-flight to calculate distance based on the reflected beam.

5. Applications of Proximity Sensors

 Industrial automation and robotics
 Mobile phones (e.g., screen turns off when held to the ear)
 Car parking sensors and obstacle detection
  Security systems (door/window open detection)
 Elevators (door safety sensors)
 Manufacturing processes (object counting, alignment)

6. Advantages of Proximity Sensors

 Non-contact detection (no wear and tear)
 Fast response time
 High reliability and durability
 Low maintenance
 Suitable for harsh environments

7. Limitations of Proximity Sensors

 Limited sensing range compared to other technologies
 Sensitive to environmental factors (e.g., dust, moisture in capacitive and IR sensors)
 Material dependence (inductive sensors only detect metals)
 Possible interference from other electromagnetic sources
 Higher cost for certain types like laser or ultrasonic

Numerical Problems on Proximity Sensors