MODULE 3
1. Describe road user characteristics.
Road users include drivers, pedestrians, cyclists, and passengers. They are the most
important part of the traffic system because human behavior directly affects road
safety and efficiency. Since human abilities vary widely, a traffic engineer must
understand road user characteristics to design safe and efficient transportation
facilities.
Factors Affecting Road User Characteristics
Road user characteristics are classified into four main groups:
1. Physical factors
2. Mental factors
3. Psychological factors
4. Environmental factors
1. Physical Characteristics
These are the permanent physical abilities of a road user.
Vision
Vision plays the most important role in driving and walking safely. It includes:
• Visual acuity
• Peripheral vision
• Eye movement
• Glare vision and glare recovery
• Depth perception
The area of clearest vision is within a 3° cone. Vision is fairly satisfactory up to 10°,
and peripheral vision extends up to 20° horizontally. Vertical vision is about two-
thirds of horizontal vision.
Hearing
Hearing helps drivers detect horns and warnings. It is especially important for
pedestrians and cyclists.
Strength
Strength is generally not a major factor, but lack of strength can make parking and
controlling heavy vehicles difficult.
2. Mental Characteristics
Mental characteristics include knowledge, skill, intelligence, experience, and
literacy.
Knowledge of:
• Vehicle behavior
• Traffic rules
• Driving practices
• Psychology of road users
is essential for safe traffic movement.
3. Psychological Characteristics
Psychological factors strongly influence how road users react to traffic situations.
These include:
• Attentiveness
• Anger
• Fear
• Anxiety
• Phobias
• Superstition
• Impatience
Such factors can greatly affect driving performance and safety.
4. Environmental Factors
Environmental conditions affecting road user behavior include:
• Traffic stream characteristics (mixed or heavy traffic)
• Road facilities such as separators and multilane roads
• Weather conditions
• Surrounding locality
Drivers tend to move slowly in crowded areas like markets and faster in open areas.
HUMAN FACTORS IN TRANSPORTATION
Road users form the most complex element of the transportation system because
human performance varies from person to person. Traffic facilities must be
designed to safely accommodate:
• Children
• Elderly people
• Handicapped persons
• Slow and fast users
Variability of Human Characteristics
Human characteristics such as reaction time, vision, hearing, and judgment vary due
to:
• Age
• Fatigue
• Drugs or alcohol
• Nature of stimulus
Since all variations cannot be considered, standard design values are used.
85th Percentile Value
The 85th percentile value represents a characteristic that 85% of the population can
meet or exceed.
For example, if the 85th percentile walking speed is 2 m/s, it means 85% of people
walk faster than this speed.
Critical Road User Characteristics
Road user characteristics are:
• Quantifiable: reaction time, visual acuity
• Less quantifiable: fatigue, psychological factors, strength
Reaction Time (PIEV Time)
Reaction to a traffic stimulus occurs in four stages:
1. Perception – seeing the stimulus
2. Intellection – understanding it
3. Emotion – deciding the response
4. Volition – taking action
This sequence is called PIEV time.
Even after the driver reacts, the vehicle travels additional distance due to speed and
braking.
Visual Acuity and Driving
Clear vision reduces perception-reaction time.
• Most acute vision: 3–5°
• Fairly clear vision: 10–12°
• Peripheral vision: 120–180°
Glare vision, glare recovery time, and color vision are also important. Glare recovery
time increases with age.
Walking Characteristics
Pedestrians are the most common road users.
Average walking speed ranges between 1.5 m/s and 2 m/s.
Facilities like footpaths, crossings, bus stops, and parking areas should be designed
based on walking distance tolerance. In small towns, most people park closer to
destinations than in large cities.
Other Important Characteristics
• Hearing loss can be compensated using hearing aids
• Driver vigilance decreases with fatigue
• Mental fatigue is more dangerous than physical fatigue
• Driver behavior varies with age, sex, experience, and skill
2. Describe vehicular user characteristics.
Transportation efficiency and safety depend mainly on vehicle factors, road factors,
and surface characteristics. Roads must be designed to suit existing and future
vehicles, not unlimited types.
1. Vehicle Factors
(a) Design Vehicles
Highways are designed considering standard vehicles such as two-wheelers, cars,
buses, trucks, trailers, and slow vehicles.
Design vehicles help:
• Fix road geometry
• Ensure safe movement
• Apply traffic control effectively
• Protect other road users
(b) Vehicle Dimensions
Important dimensions affecting design:
• Width → lane width, shoulders, parking
• Height → bridge clearance, overhead lines
• Length → turning radius, overtaking distance, parking
• Rear overhang → affects turning
• Ground clearance → ramps and crests
(c) Vehicle Weight and Axles
• Vehicle weight affects pavement design
• Load is transferred through axles
• Power-to-weight ratio decides vehicle performance
• Heavy vehicles need gentle gradients
(d) Turning Radius
• Depends on vehicle size and design
• Extra road width is needed at curves, intersections, roundabouts
(e) Visibility
Good visibility depends on:
• Windshield shape
• Pillars and mirrors
Clear visibility is needed:
• In bad weather
• At intersections
• For side and rear movement
(f) Acceleration Characteristics
• Light vehicles accelerate faster than heavy vehicles
• Heavy vehicles slow traffic at intersections and on gradients
• Causes delays and traffic gaps
(g) Braking Performance
Braking affects:
• Stopping sight distance
• Signal clearance time
• Sign placement
Braking distance depends on:
• Road condition
• Tyres
• Braking system
• Speed and gradient
Stopping sight distance = reaction distance + braking distance
2. Road Factors
(a) Road Surface
A good road surface should be:
• Smooth
• Anti-skid
• Durable
• Economical
Surface affects:
• Comfort
• Noise
• Tyre wear
• Safety
(b) Lighting
Proper lighting:
• Improves night visibility
• Reduces accidents
• Depends on traffic volume and pedestrian movement
(c) Roughness
• Drivers prefer smooth roads
• Rough surfaces reduce speed
• Rough shoulders help lane discipline
(d) Pavement Colour
• Light colour → better daytime visibility
• Dark colour → better night visibility
• Colour contrast helps lane guidance
(e) Night Visibility
• Most accidents occur at night
• Wet roads cause glare
• High reflection improves safety
(f) Geometric Aspects
Includes:
• Camber for drainage
• Proper lane width
• Adequate right of way
• Safe gradients and curves
Poor geometry causes:
• Accidents
• Delays
• Higher fuel use
3. Skid Resistance
Skid resistance prevents vehicle slipping and depends on:
• Adhesion (tyre bonding)
• Hysteresis (tyre deformation)
(a) Surface Texture
Macro-texture
• Large surface irregularities
• Helps water drainage
• Important at high speeds
Micro-texture
• Fine stone roughness
• Provides grip
• Important at low speeds
(b) Skid Testing
Skid resistance is measured using:
• British Pendulum Tester
• Grip Tester
• SCRIM and other machines
These help decide maintenance needs.
3. Write a short note on i] road signs ii] road marking
Definition
Traffic signs are signs placed on the roadside or above the road to give
instructions, warnings, and information to road users for safe and smooth
movement of traffic.
Importance of Traffic Signs
Traffic signs are important because they:
• Give early warning about dangerous road conditions
• Help in regulating traffic
• Provide information about routes, directions, and important places
Principles of Traffic Signs
Traffic signs should follow these principles:
• Installed only by authorized authorities
• Proper enforcement should be done so that people respect signs
• Should be erected only after traffic engineering studies
• Overuse of signs should be avoided
• Designed for future traffic conditions and speeds
• Must be clear and easy to read
Types of Traffic Signs
Traffic signs are broadly classified into:
1. Danger (Warning / Cautionary) Signs
2. Regulatory Signs
o Prohibitory signs
o Mandatory signs
3. Informatory Signs
o Indication signs
o Direction signs
o Advance direction signs
o Place and route identification signs
1. Danger (Warning / Cautionary) Signs
• Warn drivers about approaching hazards
• Advise drivers to take care and obey rules
• Meant for driver safety
Colour & Shape:
• Symbol: Black
• Background: White
• Border: Red
• Shape: Triangular (upward) or diamond
Examples: Curve ahead, road narrowing, school ahead
FIG.1 CAUTION SIGN
2. Regulatory Signs
Regulatory signs inform road users about traffic laws and regulations.
(a) Prohibitory Signs
• Give negative instructions
• Tell what is not allowed
Types:
• Movement restrictions (no entry, no overtaking, no turn)
• Waiting and parking restrictions
• Speed, weight, and size limits
Specifications:
• Shape: Circular
• Diameter: 0.6 m
• Border: Red
• Background:
o White → speed control
o Blue → parking and waiting restrictions
• Symbols: Black
Examples: No stopping, no left turn
No stopping sign No left turn
FIG. 2 MANDATORY SIGN
(b) Mandatory Signs
• Part of regulatory signs
• Give positive instructions
Main types:
• STOP sign
• YIELD / GIVE WAY sign
Use of STOP / YIELD signs:
• At minor roads joining major roads
• Where acceleration lane is not available
• At channelized intersections
• Where traffic problems exist
Should not be used:
• On major roads
• On expressways
• On more than one approach of the same intersection
STOP / YIELD sign details:
• Shape: Downward pointing triangle
• Border: Red
• Background: White
FIG.3 YIELD AND STOP SIGNS
3. Informatory Signs
These signs guide road users and provide useful information.
Indication Signs
• Give information about facilities and directions
• Background: Blue
• Symbol: White or black
• Shape: Rectangular
Types of Indication Signs
(a) Direction Signs
• Rectangular shape
• Use arrows
• Show directions to places
(b) Advance Direction Signs
• Provided before intersections
• Help drivers prepare in advance
(c) Place Identification Signs
• Show names of places
(d) Destination Signs
• Indicate destination and direction
(e) Reassurance Signs
• Confirm route
• Show distance to places ahead
Overhead Signs
Overhead signs are provided when:
• Traffic volume is very high
• Interchanges are complex
• Roads have three or more lanes
• Sight distance is restricted
• Speed is high
• Space is insufficient for roadside signs
• Heavy truck traffic exists
Route Marker Signs
• Show route numbers
• Shape: Rectangular plate
• Background: Yellow
• Letters and border: Black
• Often shown as a shield symbol
ROAD MARKINGS – Simple Explanation
Definition
Road markings are markings made on the road surface to control, guide, and regulate
traffic.
Types of Road Markings
1. Carriageway Markings
(a) Centre Line
• Provided at the center of the road
• Separates traffic moving in opposite directions
(b) Traffic Lane Lines
• Broken lines
• Allow lane changing with caution
(c) No Overtaking Zone Markings
• Used to show no overtaking areas
• Consist of a combination line with the centre line
(d) Pavement Edge Lines
• Indicate the edge of the carriageway
• Used where kerbs are not provided
(e) Carriageway Width Reduction Markings
• Indicate reduction in road width
• Shown using road markings along with signs
(f) Obstruction Approach Markings
• Provided near fixed obstructions on the road
• Help guide vehicles safely around obstacles
(g) Stop Lines
• Solid white transverse lines
• Indicate the point where vehicles must stop
(h) Pedestrian Crossings
• Guide pedestrians to cross safely
• Commonly called zebra crossings
(i) Cycle Track Markings
• Width equal to cycle track
• Marked using squares
(j) Route Direction Arrows
• Show correct direction and lane movement
• Help guide traffic properly
(k) Word Messages
• Written on road surface to warn or guide
• Examples: STOP, SLOW, SPEED 25
(l) Markings at Intersections
• Combination of:
o Centre lines
o Lane lines
o Turn markings
o Stop lines
o Direction arrows
(m) Other Markings
• Parking space limits
• Bus stop markings
• Object markings
• Kerb markings for visibility
• Markings for parking restriction
• Objects within or adjacent to carriageway
General Principles of Pavement Markings
• Solid lines → Restrictive, crossing is an offense
• Broken lines → Vehicles may cross with caution
• Double lines → Maximum restriction
Materials Used for Road Markings
• Hot-applied thermoplastic paint
• Provided with retro-reflective strips
• Common colours used:
o White
o Yellow
TRAFFIC SIGNALS – Simple Explanation
Definition
Traffic signals are used to control and regulate traffic flow at intersections and crossings.
Advantages of Traffic Signals
• Ensure orderly movement of traffic
• Increase traffic capacity at intersections
• Reduce certain types of accidents
• Allow continuous traffic flow at controlled speed
• Help pedestrians to cross safely
• Reduce need for police control and are economical
Disadvantages of Traffic Signals
• Cause delay to vehicles
• Encourage signal violation
• Drivers may take unsafe alternate routes
• Increase rear-end accidents
• Signal failure can cause confusion and traffic problems
4. Describe about urban traffic problems in india.
Urban traffic problems in India are increasing rapidly due to fast urbanization,
population growth, and growth of vehicles, without corresponding improvement in
road infrastructure.
1. Rapid Growth of Vehicles
• Number of private vehicles (two-wheelers and cars) has increased sharply.
• Road capacity has not increased at the same rate.
• Results in traffic congestion.
2. Road Congestion
• Roads operate beyond their capacity, especially during peak hours.
• Causes delay, low speed, fuel wastage, and pollution.
• Common in CBDs (Central Business Districts).
3. Mixed Traffic Conditions
• Indian roads carry mixed traffic such as:
o Cars
o Two-wheelers
o Buses
o Auto-rickshaws
o Cycles
o Pedestrians
• Lack of lane discipline reduces speed and safety.
4. Inadequate Road Infrastructure
• Narrow roads and insufficient road width.
• Poor junction design and lack of grade separators.
• Inadequate footpaths, cycle tracks, and parking facilities.
5. Parking Problems
• Insufficient off-street parking.
• On-street parking reduces effective road width.
• Leads to congestion and frequent traffic blocks.
6. Poor Traffic Management
• Inefficient traffic signals and improper signal timing.
• Lack of coordination between traffic control systems.
• Insufficient use of intelligent transport systems (ITS).
7. High Accident Rates
• Caused by:
o Over-speeding
o Signal violations
o Poor road geometry
o Lack of pedestrian facilities
• Vulnerable road users like pedestrians and cyclists are most affected.
8. Encroachment on Roads
• Roadside vendors, illegal parking, and temporary structures reduce carriageway
width.
• Common in markets and residential areas.
9. Poor Public Transport System
• Inadequate, overcrowded, and unreliable public transport.
• Forces people to depend on private vehicles.
• Increases congestion and pollution.
10. Environmental Problems
• Traffic congestion causes:
o Air pollution
o Noise pollution
o Increase in fuel consumption
• Adversely affects public health.
11. Pedestrian and Cyclist Problems
• Lack of proper footpaths and cycle tracks.
• Unsafe pedestrian crossings.
• Results in accidents and discomfort.
5. Explain air pollution and noise pollution with respect to transportation.
AIR POLLUTION DUE TO TRANSPORTATION
Meaning
Air pollution in transportation is the release of harmful gases and particles into the
atmosphere by vehicles.
Main Sources
• Petrol and diesel vehicles
• Old and poorly maintained vehicles
• Traffic congestion and idling at signals
• Two-wheelers and auto-rickshaws
• Construction and road dust due to traffic
Major Pollutants
• Carbon Monoxide (CO): Reduces oxygen supply to body
• Carbon Dioxide (CO₂): Causes global warming
• Nitrogen Oxides (NOx): Causes asthma and lung problems
• Hydrocarbons (HC): Causes smog formation
• Particulate Matter (PM₁₀, PM₂.₅): Enters lungs and blood
• Sulphur Dioxide (SO₂): Causes acid rain
Effects on Humans
• Respiratory diseases (asthma, bronchitis)
• Headache, dizziness, fatigue
• Eye, nose, and throat irritation
• Reduced life expectancy
Effects on Environment
• Global warming
• Climate change
• Damage to vegetation
• Poor visibility and smog
Control Measures
• Promotion of public transport and car pooling
• Use of electric and hybrid vehicles
• Proper vehicle emission testing
• Better traffic management and signal coordination
• Use of cleaner fuels like CNG, LPG, bio-fuels
NOISE POLLUTION DUE TO TRANSPORTATION
Meaning
Noise pollution is the excessive and unwanted sound generated by traffic and
transport systems.
Major Sources
• Engine noise from vehicles
• Honking and pressure horns
• Poor road surface and potholes
• High traffic volume and congestion
• Railways, airports, and construction vehicles
Effects on Human Health
• Temporary or permanent hearing loss
• Stress, irritation, and mental fatigue
• Sleep disturbance
• Increased blood pressure and heart problems
• Reduced concentration and productivity
Effects on Society
• Disturbs students, patients, and elderly people
• Reduces quality of urban life
• Affects wildlife near highways
Control Measures
• Strict control on use of horns
• Vehicle noise standards and maintenance
• Use of sound barriers along highways
• Proper road surface maintenance
• Zoning of roads away from residential areas
• Speed control in urban areas
6. Explain causes, effects and prevention of road accidents.
A road accident is an unexpected and unwanted event that causes injury, death, or
property damage.
Most accidents happen not because of lack of rules, but due to carelessness and human
error. Studies show that human behavior is the main cause of road accidents.
MAIN CAUSES OF ROAD ACCIDENTS
1. Over-Speeding
• Most fatal accidents occur due to high speed
• Higher speed → less control over vehicle
• Braking distance increases at high speed
• Driver cannot judge road situations properly
• Impact during crash is very high → more injuries
Conclusion: Higher the speed, higher the risk and severity of accidents.
2. Drunken Driving
• Alcohol reduces concentration and reaction time
• Vision becomes unclear due to dizziness
• Alcohol increases risk-taking behavior
• Even medicines and drugs can affect driving skills
• For every 0.05 increase in blood alcohol level, accident risk doubles
Conclusion: Never drive after consuming alcohol.
3. Driver Distraction
Distraction may be inside or outside the vehicle.
Major causes:
• Mobile phone usage while driving
• Adjusting mirrors
• Radio / music system
• Animals on road
• Banners and hoardings
Distraction divides the brain’s attention → slow reaction and poor judgement.
4. Red Light Jumping
• Done to save time and fuel
• Creates confusion at intersections
• Causes traffic jams and crashes
• Encourages others to violate rules
• Vehicles cross at high speed → less control
Conclusion: Following signals saves time and lives.
5. Not Using Safety Gears (Seat Belt & Helmet)
• Seat belts and helmets reduce injury severity
• Double the chance of survival in serious accidents
• Helmet use has reduced two-wheeler deaths
• Must use standard and properly fastened safety gear
OTHER FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO ACCIDENTS
Human Factors
• Over-speeding
• Rash driving
• Rule violation
• Fatigue
• Alcohol consumption
Pedestrians
• Carelessness
• Crossing at wrong places
• Walking on carriageway
• Jaywalking
Passengers
• Leaning out of vehicles
• Distracting driver
• Boarding or alighting wrongly
• Traveling on footboards
Vehicle Factors
• Brake failure
• Tyre burst
• Steering failure
• Poor headlights
• Overloading
Road Conditions
• Potholes
• Damaged roads
• Illegal speed breakers
• Poor road maintenance
• Improper diversions
Weather Conditions
• Fog
• Heavy rain
• Snow
• Wind storms
EFFECTS (CONSEQUENCES) OF ROAD ACCIDENTS
Direct Effects
• Death (fatality)
• Injuries
• Property damage
Effects on Environment
• Noise pollution
• Air pollution
• Safety issues
• Land consumption
• Poor city appearance
PREVENTION OF ROAD ACCIDENTS
1. Education and Awareness
• Road safety education
• Awareness campaigns
2. Strict Enforcement of Laws
• Penalties for violations
• Drunk-driving checks
• Speed monitoring
3. Engineering Measures
a) Vehicle Design
• Better brakes
• Improved lighting
• Safety features
b) Road Infrastructure
• Good road surface
• Proper signs and markings
• Safe intersections
• Removal of black spots
STATISTICAL FACTS (INDIA)
• Road accidents reduced from 42 per 1,00,000 (2010) to 36 (2017)
• 53 accidents per hour in 2017
• Over 50% accidents due to bad roads