MEC 125: Automotive Technology and Practice I
(Part B)
Engr. Prosper Oghenemaro Ugbehe
UNIT 1
1.0 Lubrication System:
A Lubrication system is a means whereby a material is placed between two rubbing surfaces to
alleviate friction and therefore wear. For example if you rub your hands together they will heat up due
to the friction and eventually your skin will burn.
They are mechanism used in machine tools to reduce friction and heat generation by supplying a small
amount of oil or air to the moving parts. It offers advantages such as cost-effectiveness, low
temperature rise, and continuous oil supply for high precision and maintainability.
1.2 Function of lubricating system: The functions of a lubricating system includes:
• Reduced friction
• Cooling
• Load balancing
• Cleaning
• Sealing
• Rust prevention.
1.3. Parts of lubricating system: A lubricating system consists of the following parts including:
i. Crankshaft main bearings: The oil fling dispersed by the rotating crankshaft lubricates the
cylinder walls and piston-pin bearings.
ii. Big end bearings: Piston pins and small end bushes; Cylinder walls; Piston rings; Timing Gears;
Camshaft and bearings; Valves;
iii. Piston pins and small end bushes
iv. Camshaft and bearings
v. Valves
vi. Tappets and pushrods
vii. In-line fuel injection pump bearings
viii. Turbocharger bearings (if fitted)
ix. Vacuum pump bearings (if fitted)
1.4. Constructional details of lubricating system
The oil passes through a strainer into the pump. It then flows through the heat exchanger, where it is
cooled. After the heat exchanger, the cooled oil flows directly to the moving parts of the compressor
before returning to the crankcase sump. A small portion is diverted to the oil injector, if one is installed.
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The structure of a lubrication system is composed of a pumping element, lubricating tank, electrical
control device, dividers, distributors, and distribution lines (pipes and fittings).11 02. The associated part
of the construction includes Pet roil type, splash type, forced feed lubrication, dry sump, wet sump
system.
1.5 Function of engine lubricant
Engine lubricants provide wear protection in metal-to-metal contact or in the boundary lubrication
regime. Wear inhibitors, extreme pressure agents, and friction modifiers provide oil films that can be thick
enough to prevent metal-to-metal contact and prevent surface welding and seizure. In summary, engine
lubricant:
1) Permits easy starting. Most wear occurs in an engine at start up. ...
2) Reduces friction.
3) Protects against Rust & Corrosion.
4) Be compatible with engine seals.
5) Prevent Foam.
6) Cool the engine.
7) Reduce combustion chamber deposits.
8) Keep engine components clean.
1.6 Physical and chemical properties of lubricants
Lubricants have a wide range of properties that impact their physical and chemical properties. Knowing
about these properties is important in determining which lubricant is best for which situation. While there
are many properties, the most important are:
1. Viscosity: A lubricant’s “internal resistance to flow.” Higher viscosity lubricants are thick and don’t
flow, while lower viscosity lubricants have a closer consistency to water and do flow. The image below
demonstrates the viscosity of four different oils. The ball sinks faster in the thinner, low viscosity oil while
it sinks slower in the higher viscosity blends.
2. Viscosity Index: The rate of change in viscosity with changes in temperature. In other words, how much
viscosity changes as temperature changes.
3. Oxidation Stability: Oxidation is a reaction that occurs when oxygen is combined with lubricating oil.
Variables such as high temperatures, water and acids will accelerate the rate of oxidation. The life of a
lubricant is reduced as temperatures increase, leading to varnish and sludge.
4. Pour Point: The lowest temperature at which a lubricant will flow or pour like a liquid. This can differ
depending on test conditions.
5. Demulsibility: The ability of a lubricant to separate from water.
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6. Flash Point: The temperature at which a lubricant will ignite when heated and mixed with air, but a
flame is not sustained.
1.7 Rating of Lubricants
Lubricants are classified by their viscosity ratings. For instance, a truck engine oil might be rated as 10W-
30 or 15W40. The “W” indicates the oil's viscosity at low temperatures (W stands for winter or the viscosity
at a temperature of 0F), ensuring the engine can start easily in cold weather. SAE classifications are used
to rate lubricants.
SAE established 14 viscosity classes. There are six winter classes indicated by a number and the letter W –
which stands for Winter. The classes are: 0W, 5W, 10W, 15W, 20W, and 25W. The eight summer classes
are indicated by the number after the letter W: W-8, W-12, W-16, W-20, W-30, W-40, W-50, and W-60.
Indices used in in rating lubricant include - viscosity, viscosity index, SAE numbers, specific gravity flash
point, fire point, pour point etc.
1.8 Crank case ventilation
Crankcase Ventilation is the process of venting or removing blow-by from an engine's crankcase to prevent
excessive pressure build-up within the engine. Blow-by gases are mixed with oil mist and other
contaminants that can harm an engine's internal components and contaminate the environment . A
crankcase ventilation system (CVS) removes unwanted gases from the crankcase of an internal
combustion engine. The system usually consists of a tube, a one-way valve and a vacuum source (such as
the inlet manifold).
1.9 Necessity of the engine cooling system
The main function of an engine cooling system is to ensure that the engine runs at its optimum operating
temperature. If the cooling system or any part of it fails, it will overheat the engine, which can lead to many
serious issues.
The engine does work by burning fossil energy, but the conversion efficiency of fossil energy into
mechanical energy does not exceed 40%, and most of the energy is consumed in the form of heat, of
which cooling loss accounts for a large proportion. In other words, if the engine does not have a car engine
cooling system, a large amount of heat will accumulate inside the engine in a short period of time, and the
sliding bearings, friction parts, and combustion chambers inside the engine will be bonded and strained
due to the melting of the metal surface due to excessive temperature. The engine cooling system is as
important to the engine as the lubricating oil.
The role of the car engine cooling system of the engine is not only to cool the engine, the following is a list
of the functions of the car engine cooling system:
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1. It is very important that the car engine cooling system can adjust the cooling capacity in real time
according to different engine working conditions, different loads, and different speed temperatures, so as
to stabilize the engine at the most suitable temperature, usually 90 degrees Celsius.
2. The automotive engine cooling system has different cooling intensities for different parts of the engine.
3. The cooling system of the car engine has the function of antifreezing. When the car is cold in winter, the
low temperature antifreeze will prevent the cooling system from freezing and cracking the engine.
4. The car engine cooling system has the function of rapidly heating up in the cold car state. In the cold car
state, the car engine cooling system allows the engine to heat up quickly through a small cycle to reach a
suitable temperature working condition, which can improve the economy of the car. Reduce the abnormal
wear and tear of the vehicle when it is cold.
Disadvantages of undercooling
Undercooling, or operating an engine below its optimal temperature, can have several negative effects on
engine performance and longevity. Here are some of the key impacts:
1. Increased Wear and Tear: When an engine operates at lower temperatures, the oil may not reach
its optimal viscosity. This can lead to inadequate lubrication, resulting in increased friction and
wear on engine components.
2. Incomplete Combustion: Engines rely on specific temperature ranges for efficient fuel
combustion. Undercooling can lead to incomplete combustion, causing higher emissions of
unburnt fuel and pollutants.
3. Reduced Fuel Efficiency: An engine that is not reaching its optimal operating temperature may
use more fuel to maintain power output, leading to decreased fuel efficiency.
4. Higher Emissions: Incomplete combustion and increased fuel consumption can lead to higher
emissions of hydrocarbons (HC), carbon monoxide (CO), and nitrogen oxides (NOx), which can
contribute to environmental pollution and may cause the vehicle to fail emissions tests.
5. Poor Performance: Undercooling can lead to sluggish engine response, reduced power output,
and overall poor performance. Drivers may notice a lack of acceleration or responsiveness.
6. Condensation Issues: Lower temperatures can lead to condensation inside the engine, which can
promote rust and corrosion on metal parts, particularly in the fuel system and exhaust
components.
7. Thermal Shock: Rapid temperature changes can lead to thermal shock, which may cause cracks
in engine components, especially in the cylinder head and block.
8. Fuel Line and Injector Issues: In cold conditions, fuel can gel or become more viscous, leading to
potential issues with fuel lines and injectors, affecting fuel delivery.
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To mitigate the effects of undercooling, it's important to ensure that the engine operates within its
designed temperature range, using appropriate engine coolants and maintaining the cooling system.
Regular maintenance checks can also help identify any issues that may contribute to undercooling.
2.0 Engine Cooling System
The cooling system serves three important functions. First, it removes excess heat from the engine;
second, it maintains the engine operating temperature where it works most efficiently; and finally, it brings
the engine up to the right operating temperature as quickly as possible.
The cooling system is composed of six main parts—an engine, a radiator, a water pump, a cooling fan,
hoses, and a thermostat. During the combustion process, some of the fuel energy is converted into heat.
This heat is transferred to the coolant being circulated through the engine by the water pump. Hoses carry
the hot coolant to the radiator, where the heat is transferred to air that is pulled past the engine by the
cooling fan. The coolant is then carried back to the water pump and recirculated.
When an engine is cold, such as first thing in the morning, the engine operates a bit differently. To
maximize efficiency, the engine is designed to warm up quickly. Once the engine reaches the right
operating temperature, the engine is designed to be maintained at a stable temperature, which is the
purpose of the thermostat. The thermostat is like a valve that opens and closes as a function of its
temperature. The thermostat isolates the engine from the radiator until it has reached a certain minimum
temperature. Without a thermostat, the engine would always lose heat to the radiator and take longer to
warm up. Once the engine has reached the desired operating temperature, the thermostat adjusts flow to
the radiator to maintain a stable temperature.
Sometimes, the coolant is so hot that the thermostat opens all the way, making the engine completely
dependent on the radiator to keep its temperature stable. As long as there is enough air flow through the
radiator, the engine will stay cool. If for some reason the air flow rate is too low, the radiator won't do its job
and the engine may overheat. At this point, if the coolant flow rate is increased, the engine will then
transfer more heat to the coolant, which will exacerbate the situation. The thermostat flow restriction
helps to increase the pressure in the cooling system, which makes it harder for the coolant to boil in the
water pump. However, it does little to help the radiator keep the engine cool.
2.1 Air Cooling System
Constructional Details
Air cooling is typically used in motorcycles, small engines, scooters, and some aircraft engines. In this
system, air is used to directly cool the engine components.
Key Components:
1. Cooling Fins:
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o Material: Usually cast as part of the engine cylinder and head from aluminum alloy (good
thermal conductivity and lightweight).
o Purpose: Increase the surface area of the engine to improve heat dissipation.
o Design: Thin, widely spaced metal fins that allow air to pass over them and carry heat away
from the engine.
o Positioning: Found around the cylinder block and cylinder head.
2. Air Ducts or Shrouds:
o Guide the airflow directly onto the cooling fins.
o Often part of a cowling around the engine.
3. Cooling Fan (optional):
o Used when natural airflow is insufficient, especially at low speeds.
o Common in scooters and stationary engines.
4. Temperature Sensors:
o Monitor engine temperature for warning systems or automated adjustments.
Working Principle:
• As the engine operates, it generates heat.
• Air flows over the fins, which absorb and dissipate this heat.
• The greater the air velocity and surface area (via fins), the more effective the cooling.
2.2 Water Cooling System
Used in most modern cars, trucks, and high-performance motorcycles, water cooling systems use
coolant (water + antifreeze) to absorb and carry heat away from the engine.
Types of Water Cooling Systems:
1. Thermo-Siphon System (Natural Circulation)
2. Forced Circulation System (Pump-Based)
1. Thermo-Siphon System
Principle: Relies on natural convection: hot water rises, cold water sinks.
2.2.1 Constructional Details:
• No water pump.
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• Radiator: Positioned higher than the engine to facilitate flow.
• Coolant path: Engine → Rises up to radiator → Cools → Falls back into engine.
• Thermostat: May be included to control the start of circulation.
• Expansion Tank: Manages overflow when coolant expands.
Working:
• Engine heats water → hot water rises into the radiator.
• In the radiator, water cools and sinks.
• This creates a circulation loop based on temperature difference.
Limitations:
• Not suitable for high-performance engines.
• Slow circulation and limited cooling efficiency.
2.2. Forced Circulation System
Principle: Uses a water pump to actively circulate coolant, ensuring constant and efficient cooling.
Constructional Details:
• Water Pump: Centrifugal type, driven by a belt from the engine.
• Radiator: Has tubes and fins for cooling the liquid.
• Radiator Fan: Pulls or pushes air through the radiator to enhance cooling.
• Thermostat: Controls coolant flow based on temperature.
• Coolant Reservoir/Expansion Tank: For overflow and pressure regulation.
• Hoses: Connect engine, pump, radiator, and tank.
Working:
1. Coolant is pumped through the engine block and head, absorbing heat.
2. Hot coolant flows to the radiator.
3. Heat is transferred to air via fins and fan.
4. Cooled coolant is recirculated by the pump.
Advantages:
• Effective for high-power and high-speed engines.
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• Provides consistent temperature control.
• Works regardless of engine position or gradient.
Comparison: Air Cooling vs Water Cooling
Feature Air Cooling Water Cooling
Medium Air Coolant (water + antifreeze)
Components Fins, ducts, fans Radiator, pump, hoses, thermostat
Complexity Simple More complex
Cooling Efficiency Less efficient Highly efficient
Maintenance Low Higher (requires regular coolant checks)
Weight Lightweight Heavier due to additional parts
Used In Motorcycles, scooters, small engines Cars, trucks, industrial engines
2.3. Engine Air Cleaner (Air Filter)
Function:
• Removes dust, dirt, and other contaminants from the air before it enters the engine.
• Ensures clean air mixes with fuel for combustion.
• Protects internal engine components (like pistons, cylinders, valves) from damage.
Types of Air Cleaners:
Type Description Common Use
Uses a paper, foam, or fabric filter to trap dust. Most
Dry Air Cleaner Cars, bikes
common in modern vehicles.
Oil Bath Air Incoming air is passed through oil, where dust sticks, Older tractors, off-road
Cleaner and then through a mesh. vehicles
Oil-Wetted Air A foam element soaked in oil; dirt sticks to oil-coated
Motorcycles, small engines
Cleaner surfaces.
Cyclonic (Pre- Uses centrifugal force to separate larger dust particles Heavy-duty and dusty
Cleaner) before they reach the filter. environments
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2.5 Intake Manifold
Function:
• Distributes air (or air-fuel mixture) evenly to each cylinder.
• Helps optimize fuel combustion.
• In modern engines, may have sensors and valves (like EGR, MAP sensor).
Construction:
• Made from aluminum, plastic, or cast iron.
• Often includes runners—tubes leading to each cylinder.
Features:
• Optimized air flow = better power and fuel efficiency.
• Variable intake manifolds adjust runner length depending on RPM.
2.6. Exhaust Manifold
Function:
• Collects exhaust gases from each cylinder and directs them into the exhaust system.
• Reduces back pressure for efficient engine performance.
Construction:
• Made from cast iron or stainless steel (must handle high temperatures).
• Bolted to the engine’s exhaust ports.
Design Types:
• Log Type: Simple, compact, used in standard vehicles.
• Tubular/Headers: Designed for performance, reduce resistance, improve flow.
2.7. Silencer (Muffler)
Function:
• Reduces noise from exhaust gases exiting the engine.
• Minimizes engine sound, ensuring quieter vehicle operation.
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• Sometimes helps reduce emissions slightly.
Construction:
• Made from stainless or aluminized steel.
• Contains chambers, baffles, and perforated tubes to cancel sound waves.
Types of Silencers:
Type Description
Uses chambers and baffles to reflect and cancel sound waves. Common in most
Reactive Silencer
vehicles.
Absorptive Uses sound-absorbing material (like fiberglass) to reduce noise. Used in high-
Silencer performance or industrial systems.
Combination
Uses both reactive and absorptive methods for efficient silencing.
Type
System Interaction Overview
1. Air Cleaner → Filters air.
2. Intake Manifold → Distributes air (or air-fuel mixture) to cylinders.
3. Combustion → Happens inside cylinders.
4. Exhaust Manifold → Collects and directs exhaust gases.
5. Silencer → Reduces noise and expels gases through the tailpipe.
2.8 Importance of starting system in an automotive
The starting system has an important role because it determines whether the vehicle engine can be turned
on or not, so it must be ensured that it can function properly. Although it looks simple, starting a vehicle
engine has a fairly complicated process.
The starting system in an engine is crucial for initiating the engine's operation. Its primary functions
include:
1. Engagement: The starting system engages the engine's flywheel to begin the cranking process.
This is typically done through a starter motor, which is an electric motor.
2. Cranking: Once engaged, the starter motor turns the engine's flywheel, which cranks the engine.
This process creates the necessary conditions for the engine to begin the combustion process.
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3. Ignition: The starting system helps to initiate the ignition of the air-fuel mixture inside the engine's
cylinders. Once the engine reaches a certain speed, the ignition system takes over to maintain
engine operation.
4. Power Supply: The starting system draws power from the vehicle's battery to operate the starter
motor. This requires a reliable battery that can deliver sufficient voltage and current.
5. Safety Features: Many starting systems include safety mechanisms to prevent the engine from
starting under unsafe conditions, such as when the transmission is not in the correct position (e.g.,
in "Park" or "Neutral" for automatic transmissions).
Overall, the starting system is essential for enabling the engine to start and run efficiently.
2.8.1 Function of Stating motor/ Starting system
The starting system in an engine is crucial for initiating the engine's operation. Its primary functions
include:
1. Engagement: The starting system engages the engine's flywheel to begin the cranking process. This
is typically done through a starter motor, which is an electric motor.
2. Cranking: Once engaged, the starter motor turns the engine's flywheel, which cranks the engine.
This process creates the necessary conditions for the engine to begin the combustion process.
3. Ignition: The starting system helps to initiate the ignition of the air-fuel mixture inside the engine's
cylinders. Once the engine reaches a certain speed, the ignition system takes over to maintain
engine operation.
4. Power Supply: The starting system draws power from the vehicle's battery to operate the starter
motor. This requires a reliable battery that can deliver sufficient voltage and current.
5. Safety Features: Many starting systems include safety mechanisms to prevent the engine from
starting under unsafe conditions, such as when the transmission is not in the correct position (e.g.,
in "Park" or "Neutral" for automatic transmissions).
Overall, the starting system is essential for enabling the engine to start and run efficiently.
2.8.1 Function of the Battery in an automobile
The car battery plays a crucial role in the overall functioning of your vehicle. Car battery powers engine and
electrical components.
One of the primary functions of a car battery is to start the engine. When you turn the ignition key, a small
amount of electrical current from the battery is sent to the starter motor, which then cranks the engine
and gets it running. Without a functioning battery, your car simply won't start.
Once the engine is running, the car battery continues to supply power to various electrical components in
the vehicle. This includes the lights, radio, power windows, and other accessories. It also powers the
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ignition system, which is responsible for generating sparks that ignite the fuel-air mixture in the engine's
cylinders.
1. The Powerhouse of the Car
At first glance, a car battery may seem like a simple box. However, it holds a chemical concoction that’s
far more powerful than it looks. Typically, a lead-acid battery is a simple cubical container that holds a
chemical mixture and the positive and negative plates inside. This chemical mixture is called the
electrolyte solution. The capacity and strength of the battery’s contents often determine the Car battery
price.
The lead-acid battery is considered the powerhouse of the car for a valid reason. It does exactly what the
powerhouse does for society. It generates and stores energy for later use in the car itself for various needs.
Why It Matters:
Without a reliable car battery, your car would have no source of power. The battery’s ability to store energy
and supply it on demand makes it the heart of the vehicle’s power system. If your battery is low on power
or deteriorating, other electrical systems will suffer.
2. Powers the Ignition System
Ever wondered what happens when you turn the key or push the start button in your car? The ignition
process is where the car battery truly shines. When you initiate the ignition, it sends a signal to the battery
to generate the highest possible voltage in order to send this to all the sparkplugs, which then ignites the
fuel in the combustion chamber.
As easy as it may sound, the process is solely and primarily dependent on the power that comes from the
car battery. Hence, it is crucial that car battery maintenance is up to the mark and that the car is
kept charged so that it doesn’t fail to ignite when needed the most. In modern vehicles, this process is
seamless, but it still heavily depends on the battery’s health. If your battery is weak, the starter won’t get
the necessary power, causing difficulty starting the engine—or preventing it from starting altogether.
Why It Matters:
A well-maintained car battery ensures your car starts reliably every time you turn the key. Failing to keep
the battery in good condition can leave you stranded when you least expect it.
3. The Engine Won’t Run Without It
As we read above, the role of the battery is crucial in the Ignition process. So, clearly, it means if the
battery is weak or dead, the ignition will not work, and the power required to fire the engine will simply not
be available.
Every car model comes with specific energy requirements. Because of the complex systems like bulbs,
ACs, Stereos and other electrical components today, the battery needs to be the right fit for every make
and model. In the case of the engine, they look for Cold Cranking Amps (CCA). The CCA rating of the
battery determines the capacity or ability to start a particular vehicle when the temperature falls
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drastically. A low CCA rating means lower performance in cold weather; the higher the CCA, the better the
starting power. In some cases, CCA rating plays a role in Car battery price variations.
Why It Matters:
A higher CCA rating means your battery will perform better in colder weather, ensuring the engine starts
without a hitch. When choosing a car battery, paying attention to CCA is critical—especially if you rely on
your vehicle in harsh conditions. Batteries with higher CCA ratings are generally more expensive,
influencing the car battery price.
4. The Heart of the Electrical System
With the rise in the quality and performance of electrical equipment, better performance of the car battery
is demanded.
Nowadays, power windows, power steering, and stereos are must-haves for the new generation of buyers.
New components have increased electricity consumption with already existing components.
Here’s a quick list of some components powered by your car’s battery:
• Headlights, taillights, and indicator lights
• Power windows and seats
• Air conditioning system
• Wipers and windshield defroster
• Audio and infotainment system
• Charging ports and other accessories
As the complexity of these systems increases, the demand for the car battery also grows. Lead acid
battery single-handedly supplies all the power needed in the car. Therefore, it’s essential to have a battery
that can handle all the electrical components while still maintaining enough power for other critical
functions.
Why It Matters:
A high-performing battery is key to ensuring that every electrical system in your car functions properly. If
your battery is underpowered or nearing the end of its life, you may notice dim headlights, sluggish power
windows, or malfunctioning electronic systems.
5. Power Surge Regulator
The lead acid battery does not stop working once the engine is started and the vehicle is running. It keeps
working all the while you are driving the car. The battery is busy generating and supplying power to various
components whenever you need it. While the car is moving, there is a chance of a voltage spike due to the
overuse of some of the components. The battery acts as a surge protector in such situations and absorbs
the extra voltage, preventing possible damage to the electrical system.
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Relevance of charging system, alternator in an automotive.
The car alternator, or generator, is responsible for distributing electricity to your vehicle and recharging
your battery. Although there are some models of cars that don’t need alternators, they are typically
mounted on the front of the engine and connected to the crankshaft.
It is made up of four main parts:
• Rotor and stator – the rotor is a cylinder piece surrounded by magnets that spins inside the stator
that contains copper wiring.
• Voltage regulator – this monitors the voltage output of the battery and delivers power to the rest of
the vehicle.
• Diode rectifier – this part is responsible for converting the voltage from the alternator into a form
that can be used by the battery to recharge.
• Cooling fan – as is the case when generating voltage, alternators give off a lot of heat. The cooling
fan is in place to keep it cool and performing efficiently.
The purpose of the charging system is to ensure smooth vehicle operation. The role of the charging system
is to ensure Energy supply, maintain battery health, enhance efficiency, and support other electronics in
the vehicle and for eco-friendly travel.
2.9 Ignition system in an automotive.
Ignition systems are used by heat engines to initiate combustion by igniting the fuel-air mixture. In a spark
ignition versions of the internal combustion engine (such as petrol engines), the ignition system creates a
spark to ignite the fuel-air mixture just before each combustion stroke.
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The purpose of the ignition system is to generate a very high volt age from the car's 12 volt battery , and to
send this to each sparkplug in turn, igniting the fuel-air mixture in the engine 's combustion chambers .
2.9.1 Types of ignition system
1. Battery Ignition System
Used In:
• Cars, light trucks, and some motorcycles (especially older ones)
• 4-stroke petrol engines with batteries and starter motors
Main Components:
1. Battery – Provides electrical energy (typically 12V DC).
2. Ignition Switch – Turns the ignition system on/off.
3. Ignition Coil – A transformer that steps up voltage from 12V to ~15,000–25,000V.
4. Distributor – Directs high voltage to the correct spark plug.
5. Contact Breaker Points – Opens and closes the primary circuit.
6. Capacitor (Condenser) – Prevents arcing at contact points.
7. Spark Plug – Generates spark in the combustion chamber.
Working:
1. Ignition switch ON – current flows from the battery to the ignition coil's primary winding.
2. Cam opens contact breaker – interrupts current flow → magnetic field collapses.
3. Induced high voltage in the secondary coil due to magnetic collapse.
4. Distributor sends high voltage to correct spark plug.
5. Spark plug fires → ignites air-fuel mixture.
Advantages:
• Reliable starting and spark at low speeds.
• Easy maintenance.
• Compatible with accessories (lights, radio, etc.)
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Disadvantages:
• Requires a battery to operate.
• Less suitable for high-speed or rugged applications.
2. Magneto Ignition System: used In:
• Scooters, motorcycles, small engines, racing engines, aircraft engines.
• Especially where battery is not available or unnecessary.
Main Components:
1. Magneto – A rotating magnet and coil system that generates electricity.
2. Ignition Coil – May be integrated with the magneto.
3. Contact Breaker Points – Controls current flow in the primary coil.
4. Capacitor (Condenser) – Prevents spark erosion of contact points.
5. Distributor – Directs spark to the correct cylinder (in multi-cylinder engines).
6. Spark Plug
Working:
1. Magneto spins (by crankshaft or camshaft) → generates current.
2. Current builds in primary winding.
3. Breaker points open → magnetic field collapses.
4. Induces high voltage in the secondary winding.
5. Voltage sent to spark plug → produces spark.
Advantages:
• No battery required.
• Simple and rugged.
• Reliable at high speeds.
Disadvantages:
• Poor spark generation at low speeds.
• Difficult cold starting.
• More mechanical wear (magnet, cam, breaker points).
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Comparison Table
Feature Battery Ignition System Magneto Ignition System
Power Source Battery Magneto (self-powered)
Starting Performance Good (even at low RPM) Poor (needs engine to spin)
Application Cars, light vehicles Bikes, small engines, aircraft
Maintenance Low to moderate Moderate (magnet wear)
Voltage Generation Independent of engine speed Depends on engine speed
Battery ignition systems use a battery to supply current to the primary winding of an ignition coil. This
current is interrupted by breaker points to generate high voltage in the secondary winding and spark plug.
Magneto systems replace the battery with a magneto to generate current.
The required voltage in an ignition system is primarily the minimum voltage needed to jump the spark plug
gap, which is significantly higher than the battery's nominal voltage. For a gap of 0.060 cm, about 1,800 V
is necessary to create an electric spark.
In an ignition system, the required voltage primarily refers to the voltage necessary to initially jump the
spark plug gap. This is critical in ensuring the ignition of the air-fuel mixture in an internal combustion
engine. Several factors play a role in determining this voltage:
• The typical voltage supplied by car batteries is around 12 volts.
• However, to generate a spark, the voltage needs to be much higher due to the small gap between
the spark plug electrodes.
• The necessary electric field strength to create a spark across a gap of 0.060 cm is
approximately 3.0 × 106 V/m.
Given that the ignition circuit must create this electric field across the specified gap, we can calculate the
minimum voltage required using the relationship between electric field, voltage, and distance:
Voltage (V) = Electric Field (E) × Distance (d)
2.10 Ignition in single cylinder
The working principle of a single cylinder engine is to ignite the mixed gas in the cylinder, and the explosive
gas pushes the piston through the reciprocating linear motion of the piston in the cylinder, so as to realize
the crankshaft connecting rod mechanism to drive the crankshaft to rotate. The continuous up and down
movement of the piston becomes the continuous rotating movement of the crankshaft, which
continuously outputs power to make the engine work normally.
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The engine is mainly composed of seven parts: crank connecting rod mechanism, valve mechanism,
lubrication system, cooling system, supply system, starting system and ignition system.
The crankshaft connecting rod mechanism is composed of cylinder head, cylinder gasket, cylinder block,
oil pan, piston, piston pin, piston ring, connecting rod, crankshaft and flywheel.
The valve mechanism is composed of valve, valve seat, valve spring, valve spring seat, valve oil seal, valve
guide, valve door lock plate, timing gear, camshaft, hydraulic tappet and so on.
The lubrication system is composed of oil pump, filter collector, oil filter and so on.
The cooling system is composed of radiator, thermostat, cooling fan and so on.
The supply system is composed of air filter, air flow meter, throttle, intake manifold, fuel tank, fuel pump,
fuel filter, carburetor and so on.
The starting system is composed of battery, starting relay, starter, control circuit and so on.
The ignition system is composed of battery, ignition switch, ignition controller, ignition coil, high voltage
wire, spark plug and other groups.
Here's a look at some of the key components and factors that have an impact on engine performance
A）Carburetor: A carburetor atomizes gasoline and then mixes it with air to form a flammable gas
Take a look at how a carburetor works:
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The outside air is filtered and drawn into the carburetor, where the air begins to accelerate through the
carburetor narrow and causes its pressure to drop, creating suction at the mouth of the supply line, which
sucks the fuel out of the float chamber through the nozzle and atomizes it. The atomized fuel and air are
mixed and burned in the cylinder to generate power.
The good working condition of carburetor is the key factor of engine power output and fuel economy. The
working state of the carburetor not only depends on the design and manufacturing accuracy, but also
closely related to the quality of cleaning and adjustment during use:
1, if the carburetor is improperly adjusted, it may lead to a 10% increase in the flow rate per minute of the
main measuring hole, thereby increasing fuel consumption by 5%-7%.
2, if the thickening device valve is not tightly closed, fuel consumption may increase by 10%. When the
float fails, fuel consumption may even increase by 2%, and the failure of the carburetor to effectively filter
impurities from the gasoline may lead to severe carbon accumulation of valve gaskets and spark plugs.
3, the carburetor float chamber oil level is too low, the combustible mixture into the engine is too thin, the
gasoline molecular spacing becomes larger, the combustion speed of the mixture slows down, most of
the heat generated by combustion is absorbed by the engine cylinder block, piston, barhead, resulting in
engine temperature rise, engine overheating. The engine overheats, reducing the performance of the
lubricating oil and accelerating the wear of the parts.
4, the carburetor float chamber oil level is too high, fuel atomization is poor, the combustible mixture is
too thick, the mixture can not be completely burned. There is a large amount of carbon deposition in the
combustion chamber, the top of the piston, the piston ring groove and the spark plug electrode, which
reduces the volume of the combustion chamber and changes the engine compression ratio. Carbon
accumulation and high temperature make the crankcase lubricating oil deteriorate, and the engine
accelerates the wear of piston ring and cylinder block due to poor lubrication.
Carburetor as a precision mechanical device, its important role in the engine can be called the "heart" of
the engine.
B) Piston: A piston is an important part of an engine and is usually made of aluminum or cast iron. The role
of the piston is to convert the high-temperature and high-pressure gas generated in the combustion
chamber into mechanical energy, and to continuously output power through the connecting rod and the
crankshaft
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The piston top surface is used to withstand the pressure of high temperature gas, and the piston ring is
divided into two kinds of gas ring and oil ring, generally there are two gas rings and one oil ring in each
cylinder.
The main role of the gas ring is to seal and heat transfer: seal means to ensure a good seal between the
piston and the cylinder wall, prevent the flammable mixture and high temperature gas in the cylinder from
leaking into the crankcase, and ensure that the combustible mixture into the engine is compressed
enough, and the compression is sufficient, and the combustion is sufficient
The main function of the oil ring is to scrape the excess oil splashed on the cylinder wall when running
down, prevent the excess oil from entering the combustion chamber to participate in combustion, and
prevent the phenomenon of burning oil; A uniform oil film is applied to the cylinder wall when going up to
reduce the wear of the piston, piston ring and cylinder.
The working conditions of the piston ring are extremely harsh, and the force is also very complicated. It is
subjected to the action of high temperature and high pressure gas in the cylinder when working, and slides
at high speed in the cylinder under conditions of extremely difficult lubrication. Therefore, the material
used for manufacturing piston rings should have good wear resistance, thermal conductivity, heat
resistance, impact toughness, elasticity and sufficient mechanical strength. At present, the piston ring
materials widely used are high quality gray cast iron, ductile cast iron, alloy cast iron and steel strip. It can
be said that the piston ring is the engine in the material and processing requirements of the most stringent
parts, its service life is the service life of the engine, its material, structure, physical and chemical
properties, installation and use have a great impact on the performance of the engine.
C) Crank Connecting Rod Mechanism
The piston group, connecting rod group and crankshaft flywheel group together form the crank connecting
rod mechanism, which is the transmission mechanism of the internal combustion engine to achieve the
working cycle and complete the energy conversion, is the mechanism of the engine to generate and
transmit power, through which the heat energy emitted after the fuel combustion is converted into
mechanical energy, is the energy conversion mechanism of the engine. Its working conditions are very
bad, to withstand high temperature, high pressure, high speed and chemical corrosion, and to withstand a
lot of gas pressure and moving parts of the mass inertia force, so the connecting rod body may be bent
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and twisted deformation, so the material and structure of the crank linkage mechanism requirements are
very high, its structure directly determines the performance and efficiency of the engine.
Crankshaft radius and connecting rod length are important parameters in engine design, which affect the
performance and reliability of the engine. Crankshaft radius is usually selected based on factors such as
engine displacement and speed, while connecting rod length is related to factors such as cylinder
diameter and piston stroke, specifically:
1. Crankshaft radius: The distance between the center of crankshaft rotation and the center of the crank
pin is called the crank radius. Its size directly affects the balance of the engine and the size of the rotary
inertia force. The crankshaft radius is long, the rotating part is large, and the crankshaft speed is high, so
the centrifugal force is large, which may affect the balance and vibration of the engine.
2. Connecting rod length: Connecting rod length refers to the distance between the midpoint of the two
connecting rod heads. The design of connecting rod length mainly considers the overall layout and design
requirements of the engine, as well as the height of the combustion chamber and the stroke of the piston.
The length of the connecting rod has an important effect on the performance of the engine, because it is
related to the trajectory of the piston and the compression ratio of the engine.
3. Connecting rod crankshaft ratio: this is the ratio of connecting rod length to crankshaft radius, which
affects the speed and acceleration of the piston. Even at the same engine speed, the piston will have
different motion characteristics because of the different connecting rod and crankshaft ratio.
In the design of crankshaft and connecting rod, it is also necessary to consider the engine combustion
chamber design, piston stroke, crankshaft support mode and balance weight arrangement. In order to
ensure the service life and reliability of the connecting rod, it is necessary to carry out strength analysis to
determine the key parameters such as stress distribution and maximum stress value of the connecting
rod during the working process.
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To sum up, the design of crankshaft radius and connecting rod length is a complex engineering problem
that requires a comprehensive consideration of many factors to ensure engine performance, efficiency
and reliability.
D) Cylinder Compression Ratio
The cylinder is the core component of the engine, he and the piston and cylinder head together to form the
combustion chamber, the combustible mixture in the combustion chamber combustion explosion,
generating huge downward pressure, pushing the piston downward to produce torque, through the
crankshaft output. Its working environment is extremely harsh, the temperature, pressure changes
dramatically, need to withstand a large number of thermal load and mechanical load, and has a certain
corrosion resistance. Therefore, the cylinder liner is generally cast with high-quality cast iron.
The so-called compression ratio is the ratio of the total volume of the cylinder to the volume of the
combustion chamber, so the change of the total volume of the cylinder or the volume of the combustion
chamber will cause the change of the compression ratio. The compression ratio of the engine has a great
influence on the formation and combustion of the mixture, so it has a great influence on its power and fuel
consumption. The reduction of compression ratio will cause incomplete calcination of mixture gas,
resulting in decreased engine power and increased fuel consumption; Increasing the compression ratio,
although good for improving power, will make the engine work rough. The compression ratio is the degree
to which the engine gas mixture is compressed. Therefore, to ensure the appropriate compression ratio,
the factors affecting the compression ratio are:
1. The volume of the cylinder head vortex chamber increases, making the compression ratio smaller
2, bearing clearance becomes larger
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After a long time of use, the clearance between the main bearing, connecting rod bearing and piston pin
and the connecting rod bushing will become larger due to wear, and the piston cannot reach the required
top dead center when it goes up, thus reducing the compression ratio. Therefore, the clearance of these
bearings should be regularly checked to ensure that it is within the allowable range to avoid the reduction
of the compression ratio.
3, the valve depression is too large
Severe wear of the valve or valve seat will cause the valve sag to increase, so that the calcination chamber
volume will increase, and the compression ratio will also change. At the same time, do not ignore the valve
sag inspection, once the limit is exceeded, it is necessary to replace the new part for repair.
4, connecting rod deformation
Connecting rod bending, twisting or double bending, will also make the piston not reach the required top
dead center, so that the compression ratio is reduced. Therefore, in the case of connecting rod
deformation, it is necessary to correct it in time.
5, cylinder pad thickness
The material of the cylinder gasket is generally copper asbestos gasket, which has the characteristics of
high pressure resistance and high temperature resistance. If the cylinder gasket is too thick, the
calcination chamber volume will be larger, thus making the compression ratio smaller.
E) Cylinder Diameter Travel Ratio
Cylinder diameter and stroke are important structural parameters of the engine, which directly determine
the engine displacement, compression ratio, power output characteristics and engine size. The larger the
cylinder diameter stroke ratio, the engine tends to be high-speed, the faster the engine speed climbs,
generally suitable for gasoline engines; The smaller the bore stroke ratio, the more inclined the engine is to
low speed, which is generally suitable for the pursuit of low speed and large torque diesel engines.
In the engine, the ratio of the cylinder diameter to the piston stroke is called the cylinder diameter stroke
ratio, and there are three modes: the engine with the cylinder diameter greater than the stroke is called the
short stroke engine, and the cylinder diameter stroke ratio is greater than 1; The engine whose cylinder
diameter is equal to the stroke is called the equal-stroke engine, and the cylinder diameter stroke ratio is
equal to 1; An engine with a cylinder diameter less than the stroke is called a long-stroke engine, and the
cylinder diameter stroke ratio is less than 1. The power output characteristics of these three engines are
different.
F) Camshaft
The camshaft is a part of the engine's valve mechanism, responsible for driving the valve to open and
close on time, to ensure that the engine regularly inhales fresh combustible mixture into the cylinder
during work, and to discharge the burned exhaust gas from the cylinder in time.
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Camshaft design has the following effects on engine fuel efficiency:
1, provide better valve control: the shape of the camshaft and the position of the convex point can
determine the opening and closing time of the valve, as well as the lift and fall speed of the valve. By
optimizing the camshaft design, more precise valve control can be achieved to ensure that the correct
cylinder intake and displacement are introduced at different load and speed conditions, thereby
improving fuel efficiency.
2, improve the intake and exhaust flow: the convex shape and arrangement of the camshaft can also
affect the opening and closing speed of the valve, which affects the intake and exhaust flow in the
cylinder. Through the design of a reasonable camshaft, the air flow dynamics in the cylinder can be
improved, the filling efficiency and exhaust efficiency of the combustion chamber can be improved, and
the fuel efficiency can be improved
3, control valve overlap: valve overlap is the time difference between the valve opening and closing time.
Proper valve overlap can improve exhaust gas recirculation efficiency and reduce emissions, while also
helping to improve intake efficiency. The camshaft design can control the size of the valve overlap, and by
optimizing the amount of valve overlap, better fuel efficiency can be achieved.
4, reduce mechanical losses: the design of the camshaft will also affect the friction and energy loss of the
valve transmission system. By reducing the friction and inertia load of the valve transmission mechanism,
the camshaft can reduce additional mechanical losses and improve fuel efficiency.
All in all, camshaft design plays a key role in fuel efficiency by providing better valve control, improving air
flow in the cylinder, controlling valve overlap, and reducing mechanical losses.
All in all, the accessories and factors that determine the quality of an engine are quite complex, and only
in continuous practice can they be combined into a high-quality engine. As you know, a speed stable at
3100rmp, power between 3.6-3.7, the cylinder head temperature is maintained at 210-220 degrees
Celsius, the oil temperature is about 120 degrees Celsius, and the fuel consumption is lower than
390g/kw.h, which is a high-quality 168 power, we can achieve such data by the engine produced by WADE
Machinery
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Ignition system in Multi-cylinder engines
Ignition in multi-cylinder engines refers to the process of initiating combustion in each cylinder at
precisely the right time during the engine’s cycle. This process is critical for the engine to run smoothly,
efficiently, and with optimal power. Here's how it works:
2.11 Basic Concept of Ignition
In an internal combustion engine (especially gasoline engines), ignition is the process of igniting the air-
fuel mixture inside the combustion chamber. This is typically done using a spark plug, which produces a
spark at the correct moment in the engine's cycle.
How It Works in Multi-Cylinder Engines
A multi-cylinder engine has more than one cylinder (e.g., 4, 6, 8 cylinders). Each cylinder undergoes a four-
stroke cycle:
1. Intake
2. Compression
3. Power (combustion)
4. Exhaust
Ignition must occur at the end of the compression stroke, just before the piston reaches top dead center
(TDC).
Ignition System Components
1. Spark Plugs – One per cylinder; create the spark.
2. Ignition Coil(s) – Converts 12V from the battery to the 20kV–40kV needed for a spark.
3. Distributor (Older Engines) – Directs the high voltage to the correct spark plug.
4. Crankshaft Position Sensor – Detects engine speed and piston position.
5. Engine Control Unit (ECU) – In modern engines, it calculates the precise timing for ignition.
Ignition Timing in Multi-Cylinder Engines
Timing is sequential and depends on the engine’s firing order (e.g., 1-3-4-2 in a 4-cylinder engine). The
goal is to:
• Prevent knocking (premature combustion)
• Maximize power and fuel efficiency
• Ensure smooth engine operation
The ECU adjusts timing based on input like:
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• Engine speed (RPM)
• Load (throttle position)
• Temperature
• Knock sensor feedback
2.11 Types of Ignition Systems
1. Distributor Ignition System (DIS) – Older engines; mechanical/electronic control.
2. Distributorless Ignition System (also DIS) – Uses multiple coils; more reliable.
3. Coil-on-Plug (COP) – Each cylinder has its own coil directly on the spark plug; precise and efficient.
Example – 4-Cylinder Engine Firing Order
If the firing order is 1-3-4-2, ignition happens like this (at every other crankshaft revolution):
• Cylinder 1 fires → Cylinder 3 fires → Cylinder 4 fires → Cylinder 2 fires
This ensures balanced power delivery and engine smoothness.
Summarily,
• Ignition in multi-cylinder engines ensures each cylinder fires at the right time.
• Controlled by mechanical or electronic systems depending on engine age.
• Modern engines use ECUs and sensors for precise control.
• Proper ignition is key to performance, fuel economy, and emissions.
Firing order(s) of automotive system.
The firing order of an engine refers to the specific sequence in which the cylinders fire (or ignite) to
produce power. This sequence is crucial for the smooth operation of the engine, as it affects the balance,
performance, and efficiency.
How Firing Orders Work
1. Cylinder Arrangement: In an internal combustion engine, multiple cylinders are arranged in a
specific configuration (e.g., inline, V-shaped, flat). Each cylinder must fire in a particular order to
ensure balanced power delivery and minimize vibrations.
2. Ignition Timing: The firing order dictates when each cylinder ignites its air-fuel mixture. This timing
is controlled by the engine's ignition system, which sends a spark to the spark plugs in the correct
sequence.
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3. Engine Balance: A well-designed firing order helps maintain engine balance by distributing the
power strokes evenly across the crankshaft. This reduces vibrations and enhances the engine's
overall smoothness.
4. Performance Characteristics: Different firing orders can influence engine performance
characteristics, such as torque delivery, throttle response, and exhaust sound. For example, a V8
engine typically has a firing order of 1-8-4-3-6-5-7-2, which helps achieve a balance between
performance and smoothness.
Common Firing Orders
• Inline 4-cylinder: 1-3-4-2
• V6: 1-6-5-4-3-2
• V8: 1-8-4-3-6-5-7-2
Importance of Firing Order
• Vibration Control: An appropriate firing order minimizes engine vibrations, which can lead to wear
and tear over time.
• Power Delivery: It ensures that power is delivered consistently, affecting acceleration and overall
driving experience.
• Engine Longevity: A balanced firing order contributes to the engine's longevity by reducing stress on
components.
In summary, the firing order is a vital aspect of engine design that affects performance, balance, and
efficiency. Each engine type has a specific firing order optimized for its configuration and intended use.
2.12 Firing orders of various number of cylinders
2-cylinder engine
Firing order: 1-2
3-cylinder
Firing order
1-2-3 Saab two-stroke engine
1-3-2 BMW K75 engine
4-cylinder
Firing order
• 1-3-4-2 Most straight-4s, Ford Taunus V4 engine
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• 1-2-4-3 Some English Ford engines, Ford Kent engine
• 1-3-2-4 Yamaha R1 crossplane
• 1-4-3-2 Volkswagen air cooled engine
5-cylinder
Firing order
• 1-2-4-5-3 Straight-5, Volvo 850, Audi 100
6-cylinder
Firing order
• 1-5-3-6-2-4 Straight-6, Opel Omega A
• 1-6-5-4-3-2 GM 3800 engine
• 1-2-3-4-5-6 GM 60-Degree V6 engine
• 1-4-2-5-3-6 Mercedes-Benz M104 engine
• 1-4-5-2-3-6 Chevrolet Corvair
• 1-4-3-6-2-5 Mercedes-Benz M272 engine, Volkswagen V6's
• 1-4-2-6-3-5 Toyota HZ engine
7-cylinder
Firing order
• 1-3-5-7-2-4-6 7-cylinder single row radial engine
8-cylinder
Firing order
• 1-8-4-3-6-5-7-2 1988 Chrysler Fifth Avenue, Chevrolet Small-Block engine
• 1-8-7-2-6-5-4-3 GM LS engine, Toyota UZ engine
• 1-3-7-2-6-5-4-8 Porsche 928, Ford Modular engine, 5.0 HO
• 1-5-4-8-7-2-6-3 BMW S65
• 1-6-2-5-8-3-7-4 Straight-8
• 1-8-7-3-6-5-4-2 Nissan VK engine
• 1-5-4-2-6-3-7-8 Ford Windsor engine
• 1-5-6-3-4-2-7-8 Cadillac V8 engine 368, 425, 472, 500 only
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• 1-5-3-7-4-8-2-6 Ferrari Dino V8 (F355)
• 1-2-7-8-4-5-6-3 Holden V8
10-cylinder
• 1-10-9-4-3-6-5-8-7-2 Dodge Viper V10
• 1-6-5-10-2-7-3-8-4-9 BMW S85
12-cylinder
Firing order
• 1-7-5-11-3-9-6-12-2-8-4-10 Ferrari 456M GT V12
• 1-7-4-10-2-8-6-12-3-9-5-11 Lamborghini Diablo VT
• 1-4-9-8-5-2-11-10-3-6-7-12 Caterpillar Inc. 3412E
• 1-12-5-8-3-10-6-7-2-11-4-9 Audi VW Bentley W12 engine
• 1,12,7,6,3,10,11,2,5,8,9,4 Rolls-Royce Merlin
• 1,12,4,9,2,11,6,7,3,10,5,8 Lamborghini Aventador
16-cylinder
Firing order
1-12-8-11-7-14-5-16-4-15-3-10-6-9-2-13 Cadillac V16 engine
20-cylinder
Firing order
• 1-12-8-11-7-14-5-16-4-15-3-10-6-9-13-17-19-2-18-20 Cadillac V20 engine
A. Function of a distributor in an engine
A car distributor is a component of the ignition system that distributes high voltage electrical power to
each cylinder's spark plug at the correct time to power the engine.
B, Function of coil condenser in ignition system
Basically the function of a condenser in a coil ignition circuit is to reduce the spark at the contact points
as they open in the distributor and thus minimise burning and pitting of the points.
C. Function of spark plug in ignition system
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A spark plug has two main functions. One is to ignite combustion to start the engine, the second is to
transfer heat away from the combustion chamber. The spark plugs fire when the engine is started and
when you accelerate and change gears.
D. Function of battery in ignition system
An automotive battery, or car battery, is a rechargeable battery that is used to start a motor vehicle. Its
main purpose is to provide an electric current to the electric-powered starting motor, which in turn starts
the chemically-powered internal combustion engine that actually propels the vehicle.
2.14 Effects of Advancing (Enhancing) Ignition Timing
Positive Effects
Effect Explanation
More power (up to a point) Earlier combustion allows full expansion of gases, pushing piston harder.
Better fuel economy More efficient burn can improve mileage.
Improved throttle response Engine reacts more quickly to acceleration.
Negative Effects (if over-advanced)
Effect Explanation
Engine knocking (pinging) Fuel-air mixture detonates prematurely, causing pressure spikes.
Increased engine wear Knocking can damage pistons, bearings, and valves.
Overheating Excess heat from early combustion.
Pre-ignition Mixture ignites before spark due to residual heat, causing damage.
2.15 Effects of Retarding Ignition Timing
Positive Effects
Effect Explanation
Reduced knocking risk Spark occurs later, avoiding premature detonation.
Quieter engine operation Smoother combustion, especially at low RPM.
Cooler engine temperatures Less heat from combustion transferred to components.
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Negative Effects
Effect Explanation
Loss of power Burn starts too late, so expansion is incomplete when piston moves down.
Poor fuel economy More fuel wasted as it burns during exhaust stroke.
Higher emissions Incomplete combustion increases HC and CO emissions.
Engine sluggishness Delayed response to throttle.
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