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SWE 231 ENGINEERING MATH 3
LECTURER: MR NGANG IVO
❖ STATISTICS: 2credits (30hours)
1. Graphical Representation
2. Central Tendecy, dispersion, (mean,mode,median,variance,standard deviation,
deciles, interquatile range)
3. Covariance
4. Correlation coefficients and regression
5. Least square methods
6. Estimation of mean and standard deviation
7. Test of hypothesis
8. Descriptive statistics
❖ Analysis 3: 2Credits (30hours)
1. Whole series and fourier series
2. Fourier transform, laplace transform and z transform
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STATISTICS
Graphical Representation of Data
Graphical representation of data is an attractive method of showcasing numerical data that help in analyzing and
representing quantitative data visually. A graph is a kind of a chart where data are plotted as variables across the
coordinate. It became easy to analyze the extent of change of one variable based on the change of other variables.
Graphical representation of data is done through different mediums such as lines, plots, diagrams, etc. You will
learn about this interesting concept of graphical representation of data, the different types, and solve a few
examples.
Definition of Graphical Representation of Data
A graphical representation is a visual representation of data statistics-based results using graphs, plots, and charts.
This kind of representation is more effective in understanding and comparing data than seen in a tabular form.
Graphical representation helps to qualify, sort, and present data in a method that is simple to understand for a
larger audience. Graphs enable in studying the cause and effect relationship between two variables through both
time series and frequency distribution. The data that is obtained from different surveying is infused into a graphical
representation by the use of some symbols, such as lines on a line graph, bars on a bar chart, or slices of a pie
chart. This visual representation helps in clarity, comparison, and understanding of numerical data.
Representation of Data
The word data is from the Latin word Datum, which means something given. The numerical figures collected
through a survey are called data and can be represented in two forms - tabular form and visual form through
graphs. Once the data is collected through constant observations, it is arranged, summarized, and classified to
finally represented in the form of a graph. There are two kinds of data - quantitative and qualitative. Quantitative
data is more structured, continuous, and discrete with statistical data whereas qualitative is unstructured where the
data cannot be analyzed.
Principles of Graphical Representation of Data
The principles of graphical representation are algebraic. In a graph, there are two lines known as Axis or
Coordinate axis. These are the X-axis and Y-axis. The horizontal axis is the X-axis and the vertical axis is the Y-
axis. They are perpendicular to each other and intersect at O or point of Origin. On the right side of the Origin,
the Xaxis has a positive value and on the left side, it has a negative value. In the same way, the upper side of the
Origin Y-axis has a positive value where the down one is with a negative value. When -axis and y-axis intersect
each other at the origin it divides the plane into four parts which are called Quadrant I, Quadrant II, Quadrant III,
Quadrant IV. This form of representation is seen in a frequency distribution that is represented in four methods,
namely Histogram, Smoothed frequency graph, Pie diagram or Pie chart, Cumulative or ogive frequency graph,
and Frequency Polygon.
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Advantages and Disadvantages of Graphical Representation of Data
Listed below are some advantages and disadvantages of using a graphical representation of data:
• It improves the way of analyzing and learning as the graphical representation makes the data easy to
understand.
• It can be used in almost all fields from mathematics to physics to psychology and so on.
• It is easy to understand for its visual impacts.
• It shows the whole and huge data in an instance.
• It is mainly used in statistics to determine the mean, median, and mode for different data
The main disadvantage of graphical representation of data is that it takes a lot of effort as well as resources to find
the most appropriate data and then represent it graphically.
Rules of Graphical Representation of Data
While presenting data graphically, there are certain rules that need to be followed. They are listed below:
• Suitable Title: The title of the graph should be appropriate that indicate the subject of the presentation.
• Measurement Unit: The measurement unit in the graph should be mentioned.
• Proper Scale: A proper scale needs to be chosen to represent the data accurately.
• Index: For better understanding, index the appropriate colors, shades, lines, designs in the graphs.
• Data Sources: Data should be included wherever it is necessary at the bottom of the graph.
• Simple: The construction of a graph should be easily understood.
• Neat: The graph should be visually neat in terms of size and font to read the data accurately.
Uses of Graphical Representation of Data
The main use of a graphical representation of data is understanding and identifying the trends and patterns of the
data. It helps in analyzing large quantities, comparing two or more data, making predictions, and building a firm
decision. The visual display of data also helps in avoiding confusion and overlapping of any information. Graphs
like line graphs and bar graphs, display two or more data clearly for easy comparison. This is important in
communicating our findings to others and our understanding and analysis of the data.
Types of Graphical Representation of Data
Data is represented in different types of graphs such as plots, pies, diagrams, etc. They are as follows,
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Bar Graph
A group of data represented with rectangular bars with lengths proportional to the values is a bar graph.
The bars can either be vertically or horizontally plotted.
Pie Chart
The pie chart is a type of graph in which a circle is divided into Sectors where each sector represents a proportion
of the whole. Two main formulas used in pie charts are:
• To calculate the percentage of the given data, we use the formula: (Frequency ÷ Total Frequency) × 100
• To convert the data into degrees we use the formula: (Given Data ÷ Total value of Data) × 360°
Line graph
The line graph represents the data in a form of series that is connected with a straight line. These series are called
markers.
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Pictograph
Data shown in the form of pictures is a pictograph. Pictorial symbols for words, objects, or phrases can be
represented with different numbers.
Histogram
The histogram is a type of graph where the diagram consists of rectangles, the area is proportional to the frequency
of a variable and the width is equal to the class interval. Here is an example of a histogram.
Frequency Distribution
The frequency distribution table in statistics showcases the data in ascending order along with their corresponding
frequencies.
The frequency of the data is often represented by f.
Stem and Leaf Plot
The stem and leaf plot is a way to represent quantitative data according to frequency ranges or frequency
distribution. It is a graph that shows numerical data arranged in order. Each data value is broken into a stem and
a leaf.
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Scatter Plot
Scatter diagram or scatter plot is a way of graphical representation by using Cartesian coordinates of two variables.
The plot shows the relationship between two variables.
MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY AND DISPERSION
Measures of central tendency and dispersion are statistical measures used to describe the characteristics of a
dataset. Central tendency helps us identify a single representative value around which data tends to cluster,
whereas measures of dispersion tell us how deviated data is from the central value. Measures of central tendency
include mean, median, and mode, while measures of dispersion include range, variance, standard deviation, and
interquartile range.