AP Biology
Evolution (Chapters 19-22)
STUDY GUIDE
In addition to the items below, be sure to check out the COMPLETE list of topics for Unit 7 in
There are subtopics that you are responsible for on your own, such as models for the origin of
life on Earth.
1. Explain how the genetic diversity of a species or population affects its ability to withstand environmental
pressures.
2. Distinguish between artificial selection and natural selection.
Natural selection is when individuals of a population develop certain traits caused by specific alleles that allow
them to survive and as a result reproduce better, increasing that specific allele frequency in that population.
Artificial selection is when humans selectively breed certain types of phenotypes that are not found naturally in
nature. This can result in greater genetic variation.
3. Using some contemporary examples (antibiotic resistance, HIV resistance, pesticide resistance, sickle
cell anemia & malaria connection), explain how natural selection results in evolutionary change.
4. Write the general Hardy-Weinberg equation and use it to calculate allele and genotype frequencies.
1. p^2 + 2pq + q^2 = 1, p + q = 1
5. List the conditions a population must meet in order to maintain Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium.
1. No small population
2. No random mating
3. No gene flow
4. No natural selection
5. No mutations
6. Distinguish between the bottleneck effect and the founder effect and provide examples.
Both the bottleneck and founder effect result in smaller population sizes.
1. The bottleneck effect is when a population undergoes a decrease in size due to natural disasters or
human activities, resulting in lesser genetic diversity due to chance.
2. The founder effect is when a part of a large population forms another smaller, geographically isolated
population, resulting in lesser genetic diversity, as the population only carries a fraction of diversity
present in the normal population.
7. Describe how inbreeding and assortative mating affect a population's allele frequencies and genotype
frequencies.
Inbreeding can cause a certain allele in a population to have a very high frequency because many
people have the same genotype for a gene, decreasing genetic variation. There is a very high chance
that individuals will get two copies of the recessive allele, allowing them to be susceptible to genetic
disorders. Ex: Pennsylvania Amish
Assortative mating is when individuals mate with others based on phenotype. This can cause decreased
genetic variation within a population.
8. Explain what is meant by the statement that natural selection is the only agent of microevolution
which is adaptive.
It favors and increases the frequency of beneficial traits and alleles within a population, leading to
populations that are better suited to survive and reproduce, as the less beneficial alleles are
selected against, and has a lowered frequency.
9. Differentiate between microevolution and macroevolution.
Microevolution occurs at a smaller scale and describes the
gene frequency changes that occur in a species or
population over a short period of time. It is caused by
mutation, selection (natural and artificial), gene flow and
genetic drift. Ex: bacteria developing antibiotic resistance
Macroevolution occurs at a larger scale and describes the
major evolutionary changes that occur above the level of
population. It is caused by extended microevolution. Ex:
emergence of tetrapods (four limbed organisms that
roamed the Earth).
10. Distinguish among stabilizing selection, directional
selection and diversifying selection.
Stabilizing selection is when an intermediate phenotype is
favored over the two extreme phenotypes. Ex: a grey moth
found on grey tree bark has a phenotype that is better
suited to survive and reproduce than a black moth and a white moth.
Diversifying selection is when the two extreme phenotypes are favored over the intermediate phenotype. Ex:
finches on Galapagos Islands with big and small beaks were favored over medium sized beaks b/c they
could eat seeds better.
Directional selection is when one extreme is favored over the normal phenotype. Ex. giraffes with longer
necks were favored, so their overall population shifted towards having long necks.
11. Define heterozygote advantage and discuss its significance relative to the sickle cell trait.
The heterozygote advantage is when a population has a high frequency of the heterozygous genotype
because of its higher relative fitness compared to homozygous dominant/recessive individuals.
12. Define the biological species concept. Explain the processes and mechanisms that drive speciation.
The biological species concept is the idea that a species is a population that can produce fertile, viable
offspring in a naturally occurring environment.
Processes that drive speciation include mutations, genetic drift, geographical isolation, and sexual
selection. A type of speciation is allopatric speciation.
13. Explain how gene flow between closely related species can be prevented.
Gene flow can be prevented
Clearly describe each of the following forms of pre- and postzygotic mechanisms that maintain
reproductive isolation and prevent gene flow between populations. Be able to compare and contrast
each form, and provide an example of each.
Prezygotic Isolating Mechanisms
Geographic/habitat/ecological is when two populations are separated by natural barriers or different
habitats that cause them to be adapted to them and not be able to mate. Ex: although garter snakes
are the same species, one population is terrestrial and the other is aquatic, making it hard for them to
mate.
Mechanical is when two populations have anatomically incompatible reproductive structures that
make it difficult for gene flow. Ex: Even though great danes and chihuahuas are the same species, they
cannot mate because it will be hard for them to do so. Also, in plants, pollinators are very particular
about the plants that they fertilize, making gene flow between certain species rare.
Temporal is when two species breed at different times of day/seasons/year, so they can’t mix gametes.
This can even occur when the species have overlapping home ranges and are both land/aquatic
organisms. Ex: Western and Eastern Spotted Skunks mate at different times, so they aren’t able to
contribute to a gene flow.
Gametic isolation is when there is incompatible gamete recognition. An ovum can only be fertilized
when the receptors of the egg match with the sperm. Ex: if you are swimming above a salmon mating
site, salmon sperm has no way to fertilize any other organism’s egg.
Behavioral is when different organisms have varying songs/dances/mating habits that make it hard
for other species to be attracted to the same thing. Ex: one bird might use showy feathers to attract
mates, but may not attract other species, causing less chances of mating, and less gene flow.
Postzygotic Isolating Mechanisms
Hybrid inviability is when two different species have an offspring that does not survive. Ex:
Hybrid breakdown is when two different species have an offspring that has a phenotype that results in
weakness. Ex: incomplete dominance between lizard species in Central Valley makes it vulnerable to
survive.
Hybrid infertility is when two different species have an offspring that is infertile. Ex: mules are the
offspring of donkeys and horses, and they are infertile.
14. Contrast divergent and convergent evolution. Provide examples for each. Differentiate between
homologous and analogous structures. Provide examples of each.
Divergent evolution is when a single species evolves into multiple species due to the acquiring of
different traits. Ex: Mammoths and elephants diverged from a common ancestor many years ago.
Homologous structures are when different species have anatomical similarities for different functions.
They can be used to determine evolutionary relationships between species. Ex: Tetrapods
Convergent evolution is when multiple species evolve to have similar traits due to the similar
environments that they are found in. Ex: Dolphins and sharks have fins even though they are different
species and dolphins are mammals while sharks are fish.
Analogous structures arise due to convergent evolution. Although they look the same from the outside,
they are anatomically different, but have similar functions. They cannot be used to determine evolutionary
relationships between species. Ex: wings in butterfly and bat
15. Explain the significance of geographic and reproductive isolation for allopatric speciation.
Allopatric speciation consists of geographic isolation and reproductive isolation. When Species A gets split
into two groups by naturally occurring barriers like lakes, mountains, and islands, two species start forming,
Species B and Species C. This results in reproductive isolation, where the two species are subjected to
different environmental stresses that result in two different species that cannot interbreed with each other
even if the barrier was taken away.
16. Describe the adaptive radiation model.
The adaptive radiation model is when many
species evolve from a single lineage. Ex: 1)
Founder effect, 2) Reproductive Isolation and
Speciation, 3) Dispersion, 4) Reproductive
Isolation and Speciation, 5) Dispersion, 6)
Reproductive Isolation and Speciation
17. Differentiate between the two schools of
thought about the tempo of speciation
(gradualism vs. punctuated equilibrium).
Gradualism: The slow gradual accumulation of
change.
Punctuated: Spurts of relatively rapid change.
18. Compare and contrast sexual selection and
natural selection based on their selective
pressures. Differentiate between male
competition and female choice in sexual
selection. Explain how female choice may lead
to the distinct phenotypic differences between
males and females in certain species.
Sexual selection is when nonrandom/assortative mating occurs, disrupting Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium.
Sexual selection involves the selection of traits that will increase the attraction/likelihood of reproduction. It
does not make you more fit for an environment. A selective pressure is female choice, where females have
the power to select mates based on traits that are attractive to them. Another selective pressure is male
competition, which could lead to evolution as traits that are ornamental or weaponry are favored, and thus
can be reproduced.
Unlike sexual selection, selective pressures in natural selection can be others from the environment, like
predation, climate, competition for food and living space, etc.
19. Describe the various lines of evidence for evolution and provide examples of each.
Geographical: evidence based on characteristics of a habitat/land area
Geological: evidence based on environmental features of the earth over time
● Fossils document patterns of evolution and changes in enviro conditions over time
Physical: evidence based on phenotypes of species
● Morphological homologies are modified traits that are shared among different species
○ Homologous structures: variation in a structure that was present in a common
ancestor. Ex: bone structure of human arms, cat legs, horse legs, bat wings, and
dolphin fins.
○ Vestigial structures: reduced or obsolete structures that serve little/no purpose for a
specific organism. Ex: bone structure of legs in some snakes, hip bone structure in
whales, and human tailbones.
Biochemical: evidence based on chemical composition of living things
● Comparison of biomolecules like the
nucleotide sequences of DNA or proteins
○ Shows the highly conserved
genetic code
○ Same/highly similar process of
gene expression
○ Same genetic language of DNA and RNA
○ The more a.a differences between the organisms, the more time has passed since
their divergence.
● Molecular/cellular processes are conserved
○ DNA and RNA are carriers of genetic information through transcription, translation,
and replication.
○ Pathways to create ATP are conserved, like glycolysis.
Mathematical: evidence based on statistics and calculations
20. Be able to construct and interpret phylogenic trees based on data.
21. Describe the models to explain the origin of life on Earth.
Geological events support models for life on Earth
● Earth was formed 4.6 billion years ago (bya)
● Enviro was too hostile for life until 3.9 bya.
● The earliest fossil evidence for life dates back to 3.5 bya.
Model 1:
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