1️⃣ Inheritance
Genes are units of inheritance located on chromosomes; different forms are called alleles.
Each organism inherits one allele from each parent.
Dominant alleles are expressed if present once; recessive alleles need two copies to be
expressed.
Genotype = genetic makeup; Phenotype = observable traits.
Punnett squares predict offspring genotypes and phenotypes.
Examples include flower colour in peas, eye colour, and blood groups (A, B, AB, O).
Rh factor (+/-) is inherited separately; positive is dominant, negative is recessive.
Monohybrid crosses show inheritance of a single characteristic; can be extended to
dihybrid crosses.
Key exam tip: Always specify dominant/recessive alleles and give ratios for offspring.
2️⃣ Variation and Selection
Variation: differences between individuals of a species.
o Continuous: measured, e.g., height, weight.
o Discontinuous: categories, e.g., blood groups, tongue-rolling.
Causes:
o Genetic (different alleles, mutations)
o Environmental (nutrition, climate)
o Both combined
Natural selection: individuals with advantageous traits survive and reproduce more
successfully; over generations, these traits become more common.
Artificial selection: humans select desirable traits for breeding; e.g., cows with high milk
yield, crops with bigger fruits.
Selection leads to evolution over time.
Exam tip: Explain cause → effect → result clearly for selection questions.
3️⃣ Organisms and their Environment
Ecosystem: interaction between a community of organisms and their abiotic
environment.
Population: organisms of the same species in an area.
Community: all populations in an area.
Abiotic factors: light, temperature, water, soil, pH; affect survival and distribution.
Biotic factors: competition, predation, disease, grazing; influence population size.
Adaptations: help organisms survive.
o Structural: body features, e.g., thick fur in polar bears.
o Behavioral: actions, e.g., migration.
o Physiological: internal processes, e.g., producing antifreeze proteins.
Interactions: predator-prey, mutualism, parasitism, competition.
Exam tip: Include both abiotic and biotic examples in answers.
4️⃣ Human Influences on Ecosystems
Deforestation: removes trees → habitat loss, soil erosion, reduces biodiversity.
Pollution:
o Water pollution (fertilizers → eutrophication)
o Air pollution (smoke → acid rain)
o Land pollution (pesticides, waste)
Climate change: global warming alters ecosystems and species distribution.
Overfishing and hunting: reduces populations and disrupts food webs.
Conservation measures:
o Protected areas and national parks
o Breeding programs for endangered species
o Reforestation
o Sustainable fishing and agriculture
Exam tip: Explain human action → ecological effect → solution for full marks.
5️⃣ Biotechnology and Genetic Modification
Biotechnology: using living organisms or their products for human purposes.
o Examples: fermentation (bread, alcohol), antibiotics, insulin production.
Genetic modification (GM): altering DNA to give new traits.
o Examples: pest-resistant crops, bacteria producing human insulin.
Advantages: higher yield, disease resistance, medical applications, improved food
quality.
Disadvantages / risks: ecological imbalance, reduced biodiversity, ethical concerns,
possible human health concerns.
Processes:
o Isolation of gene
o Insertion into target organism
o Expression of new trait
Exam tip: Always mention process → purpose → advantage/disadvantage.