Multiple-Choice Questions
1. Which memory type allows a person to store and recall factual
information?
a) Procedural Memory
b) Semantic Memory
c) Prospective Memory
d) Short-term Memory
Answer: b) Semantic Memory
2. What hormone is associated with improved working memory
performance in women during the luteal phase?
a) Testosterone
b) Estradiol
c) Progesterone
d) Cortisol
Answer: c) Progesterone
3. The nucleus accumbens is primarily involved in:
a) Fear responses
b) Reward-related activities
c) Decision-making
d) Emotional bonding
Answer: b) Reward-related activities
4. What is the function of the FOXP2 gene?
a) Regulating body temperature
b) Facilitating language and speech development
c) Controlling hormonal secretion
d) Governing emotional responses
Answer: b) Facilitating language and speech development
5. Which neurotransmitter is crucial for reward system function
and motivation?
a) Serotonin
b) Dopamine
c) Acetylcholine
d) GABA
Answer: b) Dopamine
6. The role of the basal ganglia is primarily associated with:
a) Procedural memory
b) Emotional regulation
c) Visual processing
d) Sensory integration
Answer: a) Procedural memory
7. Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS) is used to:
a) Permanently alter brain functions
b) Stimulate memory recall permanently
c) Temporarily impair cognitive functions
d) Stimulate the hippocampus
Answer: c) Temporarily impair cognitive functions
8. Which memory type is involved in remembering to complete an
action in the future?
a) Autobiographical Memory
b) Prospective Memory
c) Semantic Memory
d) Short-term Memory
Answer: b) Prospective Memory
9. Who is associated with the Multi-Store Model of Memory?
a) Baddeley and Hitch
b) Nairne and Pandeirada
c) Atkinson and Shiffrin
d) Crick and Koch
Answer: c) Atkinson and Shiffrin
10. Which hormone, when increased during stress, impairs
declarative and autobiographical memory?
a) Adrenaline
b) Cortisol
c) Progesterone
d) Estradiol
Answer: b) Cortisol
Fill-in-the-Blank Questions
11. ________ is the neurotransmitter that mediates the salience of
rewards in the brain's reward system.
Answer: Dopamine
12. The ________ cortex is primarily responsible for decision-making
and regulating the intensity of behavioral reactions.
Answer: Prefrontal
13. ________, also known as photographic memory, allows for detailed
recall of visual images but is rare and debated.
Answer: Eidetic memory
14. The ________ lobes are activated during the recall of emotional
memories.
Answer: Temporal
15. Chronic stress is associated with increased levels of ________, a
hormone linked to long-term memory impairment.
Answer: Cortisol
16. In the study of addiction, increased ________ levels in the nucleus
accumbens are linked to addictive behaviors.
Answer: Dopamine
17. The ________ stage of memory involves retrieving information
currently in consciousness.
Answer: Short-term
18. ________ aphasia is characterized by slow and halted speech but
with intact comprehension.
Answer: Broca’s
19. The hormone ________ is secreted by the testes and stimulates
male sexual characteristics.
Answer: Testosterone
20. ________ imaging is used to detect changes in brain activity
based on blood oxygenation levels during tasks.
Answer: Functional MRI (fMRI)
Define the Following Terms
21. Define "working memory" and its significance in cognitive
processes.
Answer: Working memory is the temporary storage system used to
hold and manipulate information for cognitive tasks like reasoning,
learning, and comprehension.
22. What is the "reward system," and how does it relate to
motivation and behavior?
Answer: The reward system is a network of brain regions, including
the nucleus accumbens and prefrontal cortex, that mediates pleasure
and motivation by reinforcing behaviors necessary for survival and
well-being.
23. Explain "procedural memory" and provide an example of
its application in daily life.
Answer: Procedural memory is the memory of motor skills and
actions, such as riding a bicycle or typing on a keyboard, which require
little conscious thought once learned.
24. What is "emotional memory," and which brain structure
plays a key role in its formation?
Answer: Emotional memory refers to the recall of events associated
with strong emotions. The amygdala is crucial for encoding and storing
these memories.
25. Define "adaptive memory" and discuss its evolutionary
significance.
Answer: Adaptive memory is the concept that memory evolved to
prioritize survival-relevant information, such as recognizing threats or
locating resources, to enhance survival.
26. What are the main limitations of direct electrical
stimulation studies of the cortex?
Answer: These studies are invasive, can only be performed on a
limited number of patients with epilepsy, and may not generalize to
the broader population.
27. Describe the relationship between serotonin and
dopamine in the context of motivation.
Answer: Serotonin regulates dopamine activity, modulating reward
responses and ensuring balanced motivation and emotional regulation.
28. Define "photographic memory" and explain its rarity.
Answer: Photographic memory, or eidetic memory, is the ability to
recall detailed visual images for extended periods. It is rare and its
existence is debated among researchers.
29. What is "TMS," and how is it used in psychological
research?
Answer: Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation is a non-invasive
technique that uses magnetic fields to stimulate or inhibit brain regions
temporarily, aiding in studies of brain function.
30. Define "episodic memory" and explain how it differs from
semantic memory.
Answer: Episodic memory involves personal experiences tied to
specific times and places, while semantic memory involves general
knowledge of facts.
List Questions
31. List the stages of the menstrual cycle in order.
Answer:
Menstrual Phase
Follicular Phase
Ovulation
Luteal Phase
32. List the three primary types of memory and briefly
describe each.
Answer:
Sensory Memory: Captures immediate sensory information; very short-
lived (seconds).
Short-term Memory (or Working Memory): Holds information temporarily
for conscious use.
Long-term Memory: Stores information indefinitely, including episodic,
semantic, and procedural memory.
33. List three hormones that influence memory performance
and explain their roles.
Answer:
Adrenaline: Enhances long-term memory encoding during stressful
situations.
Cortisol: Impairs declarative and autobiographical memory under chronic
stress.
Estradiol: Enhances working memory, particularly in women during the
luteal phase.
34. List the components of the reward system in the brain.
Answer:
Hypothalamus
Nucleus Accumbens
Amygdala
Orbitofrontal Cortex
True/False Questions
35. The hippocampus is primarily involved in emotional
memory formation.
Answer: False (The hippocampus is involved in declarative memory;
the amygdala is key for emotional memory).
36. Procedural memory is impaired in individuals with
damage to the basal ganglia.
Answer: True
37. Stress hormones like cortisol improve memory recall
during high-pressure situations.
Answer: False (Cortisol impairs memory recall when levels are
chronically elevated).
38. Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS) is an invasive
procedure.
Answer: False (TMS is a non-invasive procedure).
Matching Questions
39. Match the following memory types with their
descriptions:
| Memory Type | Description |
|--------------------------|--------------------------------------------|
| a) Sensory Memory | i) Motor skills and habits |
| b) Procedural Memory | ii) Immediate capture of sensory input |
| c) Autobiographical Memory | iii) Personal life events |
Answer:
a) Sensory Memory - ii
b) Procedural Memory - i
c) Autobiographical Memory - iii
40. Match the following hormones to their effects:
| Hormone | Effect |
|-------------------------|---------------------------------------------|
| a) Cortisol | i) Impairs long-term memory |
| b) Adrenaline | ii) Enhances memory during stress |
| c) Progesterone | iii) Improves recall of emotional stimuli |
Answer:
a) Cortisol - i
b) Adrenaline - ii
c) Progesterone - iii
Multiple-Choice Questions
1. Which neurotransmitter's dysregulation is most commonly
associated with addictive behaviors?
a) Dopamine
b) Serotonin
c) Acetylcholine
d) GABA
Answer: a) Dopamine
2. Which brain region is primarily involved in integrating
interoceptive awareness of bodily functions?
a) Amygdala
b) Insular Cortex
c) Prefrontal Cortex
d) Basal Ganglia
Answer: b) Insular Cortex
3. The concept of "memory reconsolidation" refers to:
a) The initial encoding of information into memory
b) The stabilization of memories during sleep
c) The process by which memories are recalled and potentially altered
d) The loss of long-term memories over time
Answer: c) The process by which memories are recalled and
potentially altered
4. Which hormone has been shown to enhance memory
reconsolidation when administered immediately after learning?
a) Adrenaline
b) Cortisol
c) Oxytocin
d) Progesterone
Answer: a) Adrenaline
5. In studies of stress, which imaging technique is most suitable
for observing changes in brain activity over time?
a) CT scan
b) fMRI
c) EEG
d) PET scan
Answer: b) fMRI
6. Which evolutionary adaptation best explains the development
of autobiographical memory?
a) Survival through social bonding
b) Adaptive problem-solving
c) Improved navigation and location tracking
d) Enhanced decision-making based on past experiences
Answer: d) Enhanced decision-making based on past experiences
7. What is the primary function of the arcuate fasciculus in
language processing?
a) Comprehension of syntax
b) Coordination of motor speech production
c) Transfer of information between Broca's and Wernicke's areas
d) Memory consolidation during sleep
Answer: c) Transfer of information between Broca's and Wernicke's
areas
8. Which genetic marker has been linked to episodic memory
performance in some studies?
a) FOXP2
b) Kibra gene
c) APOE
d) COMT gene
Answer: b) Kibra gene
9. Which brain imaging method is used to directly measure
electrical activity during cognitive tasks?
a) PET scan
b) MRI
c) EEG
d) DTI
Answer: c) EEG
10. What is the primary limitation of using TMS in memory
research?
a) It is invasive and causes permanent changes
b) It is limited to observing cortical areas
c) It requires surgical implantation of electrodes
d) It cannot target subcortical structures
Answer: d) It cannot target subcortical structures
Fill-in-the-Blank Questions
11. The ________ is the primary brain region involved in encoding
declarative memories.
Answer: Hippocampus
12. The process of ________ involves the selective strengthening of
synaptic connections during memory formation.
Answer: Long-term potentiation (LTP)
13. Elevated ________ levels during chronic stress impair memory
retrieval and consolidation.
Answer: Cortisol
14. The ________ is a network of brain regions responsible for
assessing the emotional salience of stimuli.
Answer: Limbic system
15. The ________ system mediates the neural mechanisms underlying
reward and motivation.
Answer: Mesolimbic dopamine
16. The phenomenon of ________ occurs when a person recalls a
memory but modifies its content during reconsolidation.
Answer: Memory updating
17. Damage to the ________ often results in deficits in procedural
memory.
Answer: Basal ganglia
18. ________ theory proposes that memories related to survival are
prioritized for encoding and retrieval.
Answer: Adaptive memory
19. Neurotransmitter ________ is implicated in both mood regulation
and the modulation of reward processing.
Answer: Serotonin
20. ________ neurons, located in the motor cortex, are thought to play
a role in imitative behaviors and learning.
Answer: Mirror
Define the Following Terms
21. Define "episodic memory" and its neural correlates.
Answer: Episodic memory is the memory of personal experiences tied
to specific times and places. It is primarily associated with the
hippocampus and medial temporal lobes.
22. What is "long-term potentiation," and why is it significant
in memory research?
Answer: Long-term potentiation (LTP) is the persistent strengthening
of synaptic connections following high-frequency stimulation, crucial
for learning and memory.
23. Explain the concept of "memory reconsolidation" and its
potential therapeutic applications.
Answer: Memory reconsolidation refers to the process where
memories are destabilized and re-stored upon recall, allowing for
modifications. It has therapeutic potential in treating PTSD by altering
traumatic memories.
24. Define "neuroplasticity" and its relevance to learning and
memory.
Answer: Neuroplasticity is the brain's ability to reorganize and form
new neural connections in response to learning or injury. It underlies
memory formation and recovery from trauma.
25. What is "adaptive memory," and how does it influence
recall?
Answer: Adaptive memory is the theory that memory systems
evolved to prioritize information crucial for survival, such as threats or
food sources, enhancing recall of such information.
26. Describe the role of the prefrontal cortex in working
memory.
Answer: The prefrontal cortex coordinates working memory by
maintaining and manipulating information for decision-making and
goal-directed behavior.
27. What are "mirror neurons," and how are they
hypothesized to contribute to social cognition?
Answer: Mirror neurons are specialized cells that fire both when an
individual performs an action and when they observe the same action,
contributing to imitation, empathy, and understanding others'
intentions.
28. Explain the significance of the "arcuate fasciculus" in
language processing.
Answer: The arcuate fasciculus is a white matter tract connecting
Broca's and Wernicke's areas, enabling the integration of speech
production and comprehension.
29. What is "synaptic pruning," and why is it important
during development?
Answer: Synaptic pruning is the elimination of weaker synaptic
connections during development, optimizing neural networks for
efficient functioning.
30. Define "executive function" and its relation to the
prefrontal cortex.
Answer: Executive function encompasses higher-order cognitive
processes such as planning, decision-making, and impulse control,
primarily mediated by the prefrontal cortex.
List Questions
31. List the stages involved in memory formation.
Answer:
Encoding
Consolidation
Storage
Retrieval
32. List three imaging techniques used in cognitive
neuroscience and their primary uses.
Answer:
fMRI: Measures brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow.
EEG: Records electrical activity of the brain, useful for temporal
resolution.
PET: Tracks metabolic processes using radioactive tracers.
33. List the primary brain regions involved in the reward
system.
Answer:
Ventral tegmental area (VTA)
Nucleus accumbens
Prefrontal cortex
Amygdala
List the components of working memory as proposed by Baddeley
and Hitch.
Answer:
Central executive
Phonological loop
Visuospatial sketchpad
Episodic buffer
True/False Questions
35. Neuroplasticity is most active during early childhood and
ceases entirely in adulthood.
Answer: False (It is most active during childhood but continues
throughout life.)
36. High cortisol levels during stress enhance memory
consolidation.
Answer: False (Chronic high cortisol levels impair consolidation.)
37. The limbic system is exclusively involved in memory
processes.
Answer: False (It is also involved in emotions and behavior.)
38. The prefrontal cortex is primarily responsible for
regulating involuntary behaviors.
Answer: False (It regulates voluntary, goal-directed behaviors.)
Matching Questions
39. Match the brain imaging technique with its primary
characteristic:
| Imaging Technique | Primary Characteristic |
|-------------------------|---------------------------------------------|
| a) EEG | i) High temporal resolution |
| b) fMRI | ii) Tracks blood oxygenation levels |
| c) PET | iii) Uses radioactive tracers for metabolism |
Answer:
a) EEG - i
b) fMRI - ii
c) PET - iii
40. Match the following memory types with their primary
neural correlates:
| Memory Type | Neural Correlate |
|--------------------------|--------------------------------------------|
| a) Declarative Memory | i) Hippocampus |
| b) Procedural Memory | ii) Basal Ganglia |
| c) Emotional Memory | iii) Amygdala |
Answer:
a) Declarative Memory - i
b) Procedural Memory - ii
c) Emotional Memory - iii
Multiple Choice:
1. Which area of the brain is associated with speech production and
syntax?
a) Wernicke's area
b) Broca's area
c) Prefrontal cortex
d) Temporal lobe
Answer: b) Broca's area
2. What is the term for the ability to recall information about our personal
past?
a) Semantic memory
b) Procedural memory
c) Autobiographical memory
d) Prospective memory
Answer: c) Autobiographical memory
3. Which of the following is NOT a stage of addiction?
a) Preoccupation and anticipation
b) Binging and intoxication
c) Withdrawal
d) Habituation
Answer: d) Habituation
4. The FOXP2 gene is associated with:
a) Visual processing
b) Language and speech development
c) Memory formation
d) Emotional regulation
Answer: b) Language and speech development
5. Which of the following is an example of an internal stressor?
a) Extreme cold
b) Psychological pressure
c) High levels of noise
d) Physical injury
Answer: b) Psychological pressure
6. Positive reinforcement involves ________ something to increase a
response whereas negative reinforcement involves ________ something.
a) repeating/increasing
b) adding/removing
c) removing/adding
d) increasing/repeating
Answer: b) adding/removing
7. Which of the following is NOT a theory of dreaming?
a) expectation fulfillment
b) activation-synthesis
c) threat-simulation
d) elucidatory consciousness
Answer: d) elucidatory consciousness
8. A psychologist who practices Gestalt Therapy would most likely be
a(n):
a) humanist
b) behaviourist
c) evolutionist
d) cognitivist
Answer: a) humanist
9. Intrinsic motivation refers to:
a) enjoying a task for its own sake
b) being motivated by money and/or other rewards
c) enjoying a task because it meets physical needs
d) motivation that can only be experienced indoors
Answer: a) enjoying a task for its own sake
10. The word "psychology" comes from:
a) Latin
b) Spanish
c) Greek
d) Italian
Answer: c) Greek
Fill in the Blank:
11. The ________ is responsible for regulating sleep and alertness and
acts as a gateway for messages from subcortical areas to the cortex.
Answer: thalamus
12. ________ consciousness allows an organism to have an
autobiographical memory and a sense of self placed within the past,
present, and expected future.
Answer: Extended
13. The ________ pathway is responsible for the "fight or flight"
response during acute stress.
Answer: sympathetic
14. ________ is the study of mechanisms that can switch genes on
and off in response to environmental factors.
Answer: Epigenetics
15. The ________ is a key component of the brain reward circuitry and
represents the expected reward in addictive behaviors.
Answer: nucleus accumbens
16. Down syndrome is caused by a problem with the ________
chromosome.
Answer: 21st
17. The ________ ________ is shaped like a bell with most scores
clustering around the middle.
Answer: normal distribution
18. IQ = ________ age divided by ________ age x 100.
Answer: mental, chronological
19. An intelligence test will have ________ ________ if it actually
measures intelligence rather than something else.
Answer: construct validity
20. The set of rules of a language by which we construct sentences
is called its ________.
Answer: syntax
Define the following terms:
21. Neuroplasticity
Answer: The brain's ability to reorganize itself by forming new neural
connections throughout life.
22. Allostatic load
Answer: The cumulative wear and tear on the body's systems due to
chronic stress.
23. Interoceptive awareness
Answer: The ability to perceive and interpret internal bodily sensations.
24. Psychoneuroimmunology
Answer: The study of the interaction between psychological processes
and the nervous and immune systems of the body.
25. Qualia
Answer: The subjective or qualitative aspects of conscious experiences.
26. Cognitive dissonance
Answer: The mental discomfort experienced when holding conflicting
beliefs, ideas, or values.
27. Confirmation bias
Answer: The tendency to search for, interpret, favor, and recall
information in a way that confirms one's preexisting beliefs.
28. Theory of mind
Answer: The ability to attribute mental states to oneself and others and
understand that others have beliefs, desires, and intentions different
from one's own.
29. Operant conditioning
Answer: A learning process where behavior is modified through
reinforcement or punishment.
30. Metacognition
Answer: Awareness and understanding of one's own thought
processes.
List the following:
31. List the three main stages of memory formation.
Answer: Encoding, storage, retrieval
32. List four personality traits that can affect illness onset and
progression.
Answer: Neuroticism, hostility, optimism, conscientiousness
33. List three types of social support.
Answer: Emotional, instrumental, informational
34. List four examples of altered states of consciousness.
Answer: Sleep, meditation, hypnosis, drug-induced states
35. List three ways chronic stress can impact health.
Answer: Weakened immune system, cardiovascular problems,
digestive issues
36. List the four lobes of the cerebral cortex.
Answer: Frontal, parietal, temporal, occipital
37. List three defense mechanisms proposed by Freud.
Answer: Repression, projection, denial
38. List four types of psychological disorders.
Answer: Anxiety disorders, mood disorders, schizophrenia, personality
disorders
39. List three components of working memory according to
Baddeley's model.
Answer: Phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, central executive
40. List four stages of Piaget's cognitive development theory.
Answer: Sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, formal
operational
True or False:
41. The larynx in humans has descended lower compared to other
species, allowing for the formulation of phonemes.
Answer: True
42. Chronic stress always leads to an up-regulation of the immune
system.
Answer: False
43. Optimism has been found to be a significant predictor of positive
physical health outcomes.
Answer: True
44. The BRCA1 and BRCA2 gene mutations are associated with an
increased risk of breast cancer.
Answer: True
45. Music therapy has been shown to boost levels of salivary
immunoglobulin A, a marker of immune function.
Answer: True
46. The scientific approach is more useful at answering questions
about facts than questions about values.
Answer: True
47. Different people always react the same way to the same
situation.
Answer: False
48. Freud emphasized the role of conscious desires in shaping
people's personality.
Answer: False
49. Most human behavior has multiple causes.
Answer: True
50. Evolutionary psychology has its roots in behaviorism.
Answer: False
Advanced Questions and answers
51. Explain the concept of fetal programming and discuss how
maternal stress during pregnancy can impact the development and
future health of the unborn child.
52. Describe the HPA axis and its role in the stress response. How
can chronic activation of this system lead to health problems?
53. Compare and contrast primary consciousness and extended
consciousness. Provide examples of how these might manifest in
different species.
54. Discuss the evolutionary theories of language development.
What evidence supports the idea that language is an evolutionary
adaptation?
55. Explain the concept of epigenetics and how it relates to the
nature vs. nurture debate in psychology. Provide an example of how
environmental factors might influence gene expression.
56. Describe the major differences between Freudian and Jungian
theories of the unconscious mind.
57. Explain the concept of neuroplasticity and discuss its
implications for recovery from brain injury.
58. Compare and contrast the behaviorist and cognitive approaches
to learning. How do these perspectives differ in their explanation of
how people acquire new knowledge and skills?
59. Discuss the role of mirror neurons in social cognition and
empathy. How might dysfunction in this system contribute to social
disorders?
60. Explain the concept of cognitive reserve and its potential role in
protecting against age-related cognitive decline and
neurodegenerative diseases.
51. Fetal programming refers to how maternal stress during
pregnancy can impact the development and future health of the
unborn child. Maternal stress can lead to changes in the fetus's HPA
axis functioning, potentially resulting in altered cortisol reactivity in
infancy and childhood. This can affect cognitive and behavioral
development, increase the risk of premature birth, and make the child
more susceptible to stress later in life.
52. The HPA (hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal) axis is a key
component of the stress response system. When activated, it triggers
the release of cortisol from the adrenal glands. Chronic activation of
this system can lead to dysregulation, resulting in consistently
elevated cortisol levels. This can negatively impact various bodily
systems, including the immune system, metabolism, and
cardiovascular function, potentially leading to health problems such as
hypertension, diabetes, and autoimmune disorders.
53. Primary consciousness refers to basic awareness of one's
environment and internal states, without a sense of self or time.
Extended consciousness involves a sense of self, autobiographical
memory, and awareness of past, present, and future. In animals,
primary consciousness may be present in many species with complex
nervous systems, while extended consciousness is likely limited to
humans and possibly some higher primates.
54. Evolutionary theories of language development suggest that
language evolved as an adaptive trait. Evidence supporting this
includes:
The presence of specialized neural circuitry for language processing
Universal language acquisition in children across cultures
The FOXP2 gene's role in language development
Anatomical adaptations like the descended larynx
The social benefits of improved communication for group cohesion and
cooperation
55. Epigenetics refers to changes in gene expression that don't
involve alterations to the DNA sequence itself. This relates to the
nature vs. nurture debate by showing how environmental factors can
influence gene expression. For example, maternal care in rats can
affect the expression of genes related to stress responses in offspring,
demonstrating how nurture (environment) can impact nature (genes).
56. Freudian theory emphasizes the unconscious mind's role in
shaping personality, focusing on repressed desires and conflicts.
Jungian theory, while also recognizing the importance of the
unconscious, introduces concepts like the collective unconscious and
archetypes, suggesting a shared, inherited unconscious across
humanity.
57. Neuroplasticity refers to the brain's ability to reorganize itself by
forming new neural connections. For brain injury recovery, this implies
that undamaged areas can potentially take over functions of damaged
regions. Rehabilitation techniques can leverage neuroplasticity to help
patients regain lost abilities by encouraging the formation of new
neural pathways.
58. The behaviorist approach focuses on observable behaviors and
environmental influences, emphasizing conditioning and reinforcement
in learning. The cognitive approach, in contrast, considers internal
mental processes like attention, memory, and problem-solving. While
behaviorists might explain learning through stimulus-response
associations, cognitivists would emphasize how information is
processed, stored, and retrieved.
59. Mirror neurons fire both when an individual performs an action
and when they observe that same action performed by others. This
system is thought to play a role in understanding others' actions and
intentions, facilitating empathy and social cognition. Dysfunction in this
system could contribute to social disorders like autism, where
individuals may have difficulty understanding and relating to others'
actions and emotions.
60. Cognitive reserve refers to the brain's resilience to
neuropathological damage. It's thought to be influenced by factors like
education, occupational complexity, and engaging in mentally
stimulating activities throughout life. Higher cognitive reserve may
help protect against age-related cognitive decline and
neurodegenerative diseases by allowing the brain to compensate for
damage through alternative neural networks or cognitive strategies
Definitions:Types of Memory
Sensory memory: Visual-iconic memories and echoic sound-based
memories that are very short-lived, lasting only up to a few seconds.
Short-term memory: Memory currently in our consciousness, in the
process of being encoded into long-term memory.
Long-term memory: Memories that are not currently in our
consciousness, stored and retrieved when needed.
Eidetic memory: Ability to recall a very detailed visual image for a
long period of time, also known as photographic memory.
Prospective memory: Ability to remember to complete an action in
the future.
Semantic memory: Declarative memory that refers to our ability to
store and recall factual information.
Autobiographical memory: Ability to recall information about our
personal past.
Procedural memory: Motor actions that become implicit, requiring no
conscious attention.
Memory Processes
Encoding: The process of converting information into a form that can
be stored in memory.
Storage: The retention of encoded information over time.
Retrieval: The process of accessing stored information.
Brain Structures Involved in Memory
Hippocampus: Important for semantic (declarative) memory.
Amygdala: Activated when encoding emotional memories.
Prefrontal cortex: Involved in working (short-term) memory.
Basal ganglia: Important for procedural memory.
Hormones and Memory
Adrenaline: Enhances encoding of long-term memories.
Cortisol: Can impair declarative and autobiographical memory.
Estradiol: Associated with better working memory in women.
Progesterone: Correlated with better memory performance and recall
of emotional stimuli.
Testosterone: Supplementation may help memory functioning in
elderly with memory problems.
Consciousness
Primary consciousness: Awareness of external and internal events,
able to use this information to direct behavior.
Extended consciousness: Allows for autobiographical memory and
sense of self placed within past, present and expected future.
Interoceptive awareness: Body-mind relationship, awareness of
bodily sensations.
States of Consciousness
Wakeful: Normal conscious state with high awareness and
responsiveness.
Deep sleep/coma/anesthesia: Loss of awareness and low
responsiveness.
Vegetative state: High arousal but no awareness of surroundings.
Minimally conscious state: Fleeting signs of awareness.
Language Components
Syntax: Rules of organizing language into grammatical sentences.
Semantics: Interpretation of the meaning of words.
Phonology: Patterns of sounds in speech.
Phonetics: Physical mechanisms of speech sounds.
Language-Related Terms
Larynx: Voice box found in the neck, aids in breathing and controlling
pitch and volume of sound.
FOXP2 gene: Involved in brain maturation and language/speech
development.
Broca's area: Located in left frontal cortex, involved in speech
production and syntax comprehension.
Wernicke's area: Located in left temporal lobe, involved in language
comprehension.
Aphasia: Full loss of language.
Dysphasia: Partial loss of language.
Stress and Health
Chronic stress: Exposure to a threat situation where stressful stimuli
are not quickly resolved.
Acute stress: Exposure to a short-term stressor leading to an
immediate physiological response.
Internal stressors: Stress caused by challenges occurring within the
body.
External stressors: Stress caused by physical challenges the body is
exposed to.
Allostatic load: Cumulative exposure to stress over time.
Epigenetics: Study of mechanisms that can switch genes on and off.
Fetal programming: Process by which fetal development can be
altered as a result of stress experienced by the mother