AIR FORCE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

MECHANICAL AND AEROSPACE GROUND ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

COURSE: WELDING TECHNOLOGY
LEVEL: ND I
LECTURER: ENGR. JUNAIDU MUSTAPHA S.

INTRODUCTION

Welding is a manufacturing process classified under joining processes. Other classes of

manufacturing processes are; casting (ingot casting, shape casting, powder metallurgy), forming
(forging, extrusion, sheet metal forming), machining (turning, boring, drilling, milling, grinding).

Welding is a joining process that produces coalescence of materials by heating them to the
welding temperature with or without the application of pressure or pressure alone and with or
without the use of filler metal.

CLASSICATION OF WELDING PROCESSES

Various classification of welding processes include,

 Arc Welding (Shielded Metal Arc Welding, Gas Metal Arc Welding, Gas Tungsten Arc
Welding, Submerged Arc Welding, Plasma Arc Welding).
 Resistance Welding (spot welding, seam welding, projection welding).
 Solid State Welding (Ultrasonic Welding, Friction Stir Welding, Explosive Welding).
 Beam Processes (Laser Beam, Electron Beam Welding).

Advantages of welding

1. Welded joint has high strength, sometimes more than the parent metal.
2. Different material can be welded.
3. Welding can be performed anyplace, no need enough clearance.
4. They give smooth appearance and simplicity in design.
5. They can be done in any shape and any direction.
6. It can be automated.
7. Provide a complete rigid joint.
8. Addition and modification of existing structures are easy.
9. Some processes can be made portable for implementation in the field for erection of large
structures on site or for maintenance and repair of such structures and
equipment.
10. welding (better than most other joining processes) can be performed remotely in hazardous
environments (e.g., underwater, in areas of radiation, in outer space) using robots

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Disadvantages of welding

1. Members may become distorted due to uneven heating and cooling during welding.
2. They are permanent joint, to dismantle we have to break the weld.
3. High initial investment.
4. A serious consideration, but not necessarily a disadvantage, is that welding requires considerable
operator skill, or, in lieu of skilled operators, sophisticated automated welding systems.

SOME WELDING TERMINOLOGIES

ACETONE:
A flammable, volatile liquid used in acetylene cylinders to dissolve and stabilize acetylene under high
pressure.
ACETYLENE:
A highly combustible gas composed of carbon and hydrogen. Used as a fuel gas in the oxyacetylene
welding process.
ALLOY:
A mixture with metallic properties, composed of two or more elements, of which at least one is a
metal.
ALTERNATING CURRENT:
An electric current that reverses its direction at regularly recurring intervals.
AMMETER:
An instrument for measuring electrical current in amperes by an indicator activated by the movement
of a coil in a magnetic field or by the longitudinal expansion of a wire carrying the current.
ARC BLOW:
The deflection of an electric arc from its normal path because of magnetic forces.
ARC CUTTING:
A group of cutting processes in which the cutting of metals is accomplished by melting with the heat
of an arc between the electrode and the base metal. CARBON-ARC CUTTING, METAL-ARC CUTTING,
ARC-OXYGEN CUTTING, AND AIR-ARC CUTTING.
ARC LENGTH:
The distance between the tip of the electrode and the weld puddle.
ARC WELDING:
A group of welding processes in which fusion is obtained by heating with an electric arc or arcs, with
or without the use of filler metal.
AS-WELDED:
The condition of weld metal, welded joints, and weldments after welding and prior to any subsequent
thermal, mechanical, or chemical treatments.
BACK-FIRE:

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The momentary burning back of a flame into the tip, followed by a snap or pop, then immediate
reappearance or burning out of the flame.
BACK PASS:
A pass made to deposit a back weld.
BACK UP:
In flash and upset welding, a locator used to transmit all or a portion of the upsetting force to the
work piece.
BACK WELD:
A weld deposited at the back of a single groove weld.
BACKHAND WELDING:
A welding technique in which the flame is directed towards the completed weld.
BACKING STRIP:
A piece of material used to retain molten metal at the root of the weld and/or increase the thermal
capacity of the joint so as to prevent excessive warping of the base metal.
BARE ELECTRODE:
An arc welding electrode that has no coating other than that incidental to the drawing of the wire.
BARE ELECTRODE:
An arc welding electrode that has no coating other than that incidental to the drawing of the wire.
BASE METAL:
The metal to be welded or cut. In alloys, it is the metal present in the largest proportion.
WELDMENT:
An assembly whose component parts are formed by welding.

BEVEL ANGLE:
The angle formed between the prepared edge of a member and a plane perpendicular to the surface
of the member.
BRAZING:
A group of welding processes in which a groove, fillet, lap, or flange joint is bonded by using a
nonferrous filler metal having a melting point above 800 F (427 C), but below that of the base metals.
Filler metal is distributed in the joint by capillary attraction.
SOLDERING:
This is a process of using alloys with low melting point (below 450 ̊C) to join metal parts. In this
process, the molten metal solder adheres to the metal surfaces and fills the space between the parts
to be joined. Soldering uses an electric soldering iron that heats up and melts the filler materials
you’re adding to the base metal you’re working on.

CHAMFERING:
The preparation of a welding contour, other than for a square groove weld, on the edge of a joint
member.
COALESCENCE:

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The uniting or fusing of metals upon heating.

DISCONTINUITY:
An interruption of the typical structure of a weldment, such as lack of homogeneity in the mechanical,
metallurgical, or physical characteristics of the material or weldment. A discontinuity is not
necessarily a defect.
INERT GAS:
A gas which does not normally combine chemically with the base metal or filler metal.
SPATTER:
The metal particles expelled during arc and gas welding which do not form a part of the weld.
WEAVING:
A technique of depositing weld metal in which the electrode is oscillated. It is usually accomplished
by a semicircular motion of the arc to the right and left of the direction of welding. Weaving serves
to increase the width of the deposit, decreases overlap, and assists in slag formation.
WELD:
A localized fusion of metals produced by heating to suitable temperatures. Pressure and/or filler
metal may or may not be used. The filler material has a melting point approximately the same or
below that of the base metals, but always above 800 F
(427 C).

WELDING LEADS:
a. Electrode lead. The electrical conductor between the source of the arc welding current and the
electrode holder.
b. Work lead. The electrical conductor between the source of the arc welding current and the work
piece.
WELDING SYMBOL:
The assembled symbol consists of the following eight elements, or such of these as are necessary:
reference line, arrow, basic weld symbols, dimension and other data, supplementary symbols, finish
symbols, tail, specification, process, or other references.
WELDING TECHNIQUE:
The details of a manual, machine, or semiautomatic welding operation which, within the limitations
of the prescribed joint welding procedure, are controlled by the welder or welding operator.

WELDING TIP:
The tip of a gas torch especially adapted to welding.
WELDING TORCH:
A device used in gas welding and torch brazing for mixing and controlling the flow of gases.
YIELD POINT:
The yield point is the load per unit area value at which a marked increase in deformation of the
specimen occurs with little or no increase of load; in other words, the yield point is the stress at which
a marked increase in strain occurs with little or no increase in stress.

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 WELDING SYMBOLS

A standard welding symbol and weld symbols have been developed by the American Welding
Society (AWS).
The standard welding symbol, consists of a reference line, an arrow, and a tail. Each component
has a particular function. The reference line is used to apply weld symbols and other data, and
the arrow connects the reference line to the joint or area to be welded. The tail is added only
when needed for the purpose of including a specification process or other reference.
The phrase welding symbol refers to the total symbol including all information added to it to
specify the weld(s) required. Weld symbol, on the other hand, refers to the symbol for a specific
type of weld. The weld symbol is only part of the total information that may be contained in the
welding symbol.
The arrow of the welding symbol may be shown with or without a break. When shown with a
break, the break is made toward the member of the joint that is to be prepared or shaped. Note
that if there is no preference as to which joint member is to be prepared, or it is obvious which
member is to be prepared, the arrow need not be shown with a break. The arrow is always drawn
at an angle to the reference line. It is never drawn parallel (horizontal) to or in the same plane as
the reference line. Multiple arrows may be added to the reference line to show the same weld
required in several different locations, as in the case of a group of spot or fillet welds.

The reference line of the welding symbol also has a particular significance that remains the same
regardless of the elements added to it, and it is always drawn horizontal to the bottom of the
print. The lower side of the reference line is termed the arrow side and the upper side is termed
the other side. It should be noted that the terms “arrow side” and “other side” apply to the
location of the weld with respect to the joint. The direction of the arrow has no bearing on the
significance of the reference line. The arrow simply indicates a point to which the significance of
the reference line and its elements are applied. When a weld symbol is placed on the reference
line on the lower side of the line, the weld must be made on the arrow side of the joint.

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A welding symbol may include the following elements:

 Reference Line
 Arrow
 Basic Weld Symbol
 Dimensions & Other Data
 Supplementary Symbols
 Finish Symbols
 Tail
 Specifications, Process, Or Other References

Weld Symbols
The weld symbol distinguishes between the two sides of a joint by using the arrow and the spaces
above and below the reference line. The side of the joint to which the arrow points is known as
the arrow side, and its weld is made according to the instructions given below the reference line.
The other side of the joint is known as the other side, and its weld is made according to the

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instructions given above the reference line. The below and above rules apply regardless of the
arrow's direction.

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 ELECTRODE COATINGS
Coatings for the electrodes normally consist of a mixture of mineral silicates, oxides, fluorides,
carbonates, hydrocarbons, organic materials, ferro-alloys and iron powder bonded with sodium
or potassium silicate and powdered metal alloys plus a liquid binder. After mixing, the coating is
then extruded onto the core wire and the finished electrodes are dried in batches in ovens.
An electrode is a wire or rod which is covered with a flux coating that is melted by high
temperature generated by the arc.

Functions of Electrode Coatings

Electrodes support the electric arc and provide the filler metal to the joint. As the electrode melts,
the flux coating does the following;
 Cleans the surface being welded.
 Releases gases that shields the molten weld area from being contaminated by oxygen and
nitrogen in the atmosphere which weakens the weld. The gas also helps in stabilizing the
arc.
 Produces slag which acts as insulation and slows the rate of cooling of the weld.
 Reduces spatter.
 Makes starting the arc easier.
 Helps to ensure even distribution of the metal in the welding rod or wire to the parent
metal.
 Adds alloy materials to the weld metal.

Classification of Electrode

Electrodes are classified according to their operating characteristics, type of coating and the
qualities of the deposited metal. These characteristics can further be classified as coating
composition, welding current and welding position. The AWS has established a uniform
numbering system for classification of electrodes and this classification number is stamped on
the coating near the grip end of the electrode.

The identification system for steel arc welding electrodes is a four digit number series preceded
by a letter as described below:
 The symbol E indicates that the electrode is intended for use in electrical welding.
 The first two (or three) digits of the number indicate the tensile strength (the resistance
of the material to forces trying to pull it apart), in thousands of pounds per square inch
(psi), of the deposited metal.
 The third (or fourth) digit indicates the position of the weld. The number 0 in either one
of these positions indicates the classification is not used. The number 1 indicates the

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 electrode may be used for all welding positions. The number 2 indicates that the electrode
may be used only in the flat and horizontal positions. The number 3 indicates the
electrode is to be used only in the flat welding position.
 The fourth (or last) digit indicates the type of coating on the electrode, and the power
supply (either alternating current (AC) or direct current (DC), straight polarity (SP), or
reverse polarity (RP) to be used with the pertinent electrode.
 A listing of the types of coatings, welding currents, and polarity requirements of the
fourth (or last) identifying digit of the electrode is listed below;
DIGIT COATING CURRENT

0 Cellulose sodium or determined by the third DC

digit
1 Cellulose potassium AC or DC

2 Titania Sodium AC, DCSP

3 Titania potassium AC, DC

4 Iron powder titania AC, DC

5 Low hydrogen sodium DCRP

6 Low hydrogen potassium AC, DCRP

7 Iron powder-iron oxide AC, DCSP

8 Iron powder-low hydrogen AC, DC

 In case of high strength electrode and alloy electrodes, a suffix to the electrode number
is used. This suffix appears with a dash and indicates the specific chemical additions to
the electrodes E.g. E7018-B2

Selecting the Proper Electrode

The following points are to be considered when selecting an electrode;
 The type of metal being welded
 The thickness of the metal
 The position of the joint
 How rapidly should the electrode metal be deposited
 Extent of required joint penetration and joint preparation
 Welding code requirement as specified by the blueprint.

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 WELDING POSITIONS AND ASSOCIATED PROBLEMS
POSITIONS BUTT/PLATE FILLET WELD PIPE WELDING
GROOVE WELD
FLAT 1G 1F 1G
HORIZONTAL 2G 2F 2G
VERTICAL 3G 3F 5G (fixed)
OVERHEAD 4G 4F 6G (fixed)

 Flat position: Also referred to as a “down hand” position, the flat position weld is the
easiest and often the first weld that new students learn. The metals to be joined are
placed flat, and the welder passes the electric arc over them, moving across the work
piece in a horizontal direction. The joint’s top side is welded together allowing the molten
material to move downward into its edges or groove.
 Horizontal Position: The horizontal position is considered an out-of-position weld. Along
with the vertical and overhead, the horizontal position can be more challenging to
perform and require a higher level of skill. The weld axis is horizontal. How the position is
executed depends on the type of weld. For a fillet weld, the weld bead is placed where a
vertical and a horizontal piece of metal meet at a 90-degree angle. When performing a
groove weld, the weld face will be along a vertical plane.
 Vertical Position: For a vertical position weld, both the weld and plate will lie vertically.
One of the major problems when performing this weld is the molten metal flowing
downward and piling up. Welding in a downhill or upward vertical position can prevent
this issue.
 The overhead position: weld is the most difficult position to work in. The welding will be
performed with the two pieces of metal above the welder, and the welder will have to
angle him or herself and the equipment to reach the joints. One major issue can be the
metal sagging from the plate. When the metal sags, it creates a crown. To avoid this issue,
the puddle of molten metal should be kept small.

As observed, the welding position is essentially the location of the welder in relation to the work
piece. One of the major considerations with each position is the direction the welding
consumable (electrode) will flow due to gravity. The position of the welded joint on the plates or
sections to be joined forms the basis for all welding classifications, which are represented by
welding symbols.

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Page 11 of 27
 SAFE WORKING IN THE FABRICATION SHOP

1. Never use a cutting torch where spark will be a hazard, such as near rooms containing
flammable materials, especially dipping or spraying rooms,
2. If cutting is to be over a wooden floor, sweep the floor clean and wet it down before
starting the cutting. Provide a bucket or pan containing water or sand to catch the
dripping slag.
3. Keep a fire extinguisher nearby whenever any cutting is done
4. Whenever possible perform the cutting operation in wide open area so sparks and slag
will not become lodged in crevices or cracks.
5. If cutting is to be done near flammable materials, and the flammable materials cannot be
moved, suitable fire resisting guards partitions, or screen must be used
6. In plants where greasy, dirty or gassy atmosphere exist extra precaution should be taken
to avoid explosion resulting from electric sparks or open fire during a cutting or welding
operation.
7. Keep flame and sparks away from oxygen cylinders and hose
8. Never do any cutting near ventilators
9. Move combustible materials at least 40 feet (12.19 meters) away from any cutting or
welding operation.
10. Where the risk of fire is great, always have stand-by watchers with fire extinguishers.
11. Never use oxygen to dust off clothing or work.
12. Never use oxygen as a substitute for compressed air
13. Never weld or cut drums, barrel, or tanks until you know there is no danger of fire of
explosion
14. Don’t rely on your nose or eye to determine if it is safe to weld or cut a closed container.
Remember, a very small amount of residual flammable liquid or gas may cause a serious
explosion.
15. Don’t clean a container where there is poor ventilation. Good ventilation is necessary to
carry harmful and explosive vapours.
16. Always use a spark resistive tool when heavy sludge or scale must be removed by scraping
or hammering.
17. Install welding equipment according to provisions of the National Electric Code.
18. Be sure a welding machine is equipped with a power disconnect switch which is
conveniently located at or near the machine so the power can be shut off quickly.
19. Don’t make repairs on welding equipment unless the power to the machine is shut OFF.
The high voltage used for welding machines can inflict severe and fatal injuries.
20. Don’t use welding machines without proper grounding. Stray current may develop which
can cause severe shock when ungrounded parts are touched. Do not ground to pipelines
carrying gases of flammable liquids.

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21. Don’t use electrode holder with loose cable connections. Keep connections tight at all
times. Avoid using electrode holders with defective jaws or poor insulation.
22. Don’t change the polarity switch when the machine is under a load. Wait until the
machine is idle and the circuit is open. Otherwise, the contact surface of the switch may
be burnt and the person throwing the switch may receive a severe burn from the arcing.
23. Don’t operate the range switch under load. The range switch provides the current setting
and should be operated only while the machine is idling and the current is open. Switching
the current while the machine is under a load will cause an arc to form between the
contact surface.
24. Don’t overload welding cables or operate a machine with poor connections. Operating
with current beyond the rated cable capacity causes overheating. Poor connection may
cause the cable to arc it when touches the metal grounded in the welding circuit.
25. Don’t weld in damp area. Keep hand and clothing dry all the time. Never stand or lie in
puddles of water, on damp ground, or against grounded metal when welding without
suitable installation. Use a dry board or rubber mat to stand on.
26. Don’t strike an arc if someone without proper eye protection is standing by.
27. Never pick up pieces of metal which have just been welded or heated.
28. Don’t weld on hollow (cored) casting unless they have been properly vented, otherwise
an explosion may occur.
29. When welding is completed, turn OFF the machine, pull the power disconnect switch and
hang the electrode holder in its designated.
30. Always wear protective eye goggles when chipping or grinding. A small particle of slag or
metal may cause severe eye injury.

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 WELD JOINTS AND PREPARATIONS

Butt Joints

Butt joints occur when two pieces of metal in the same plane are joined with their edges meeting.
It may be square, grooved, single V or double V butt joint.

 Square butt joint is used primarily for metals that are 5mm or less in thickness. This joint
is reasonably strong but not recommended for joints that are subjected to fatigue or
impact loading.
 Grooved butt joint is used for metals that are thicker than 5mm. The purpose of grooving
is to give the joint the required strength. When using a grooved joint, the groove angle
should be sufficient enough to allow electrode into the joint otherwise the weld will lack
penetration and may even crack. However, excess beveling should be avoided because
this wastes both time and material. A grooved joint maybe single or double.

The single butt joint is used for metals having a thickness of (7-20) mm and each member is
beveled to an included angle of 60degrees for plate and 75degrees for pipes. This joint requires
filler material and this makes it to be costlier than square butt joint. It is however stronger than
the square butt joint and is recommended for bending loading at the root.

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Double V-butt joint is an excellent joint for all load conditions. It is used on metals that are thicker
than 20mm and requires strength. Because of the heat produced during welding, weld deposition
should be alternated by welding on one side and then the other side. This produces a more
symmetrical weld and minimizes warpage.

Lap Joints

It is basically a modification of butt welding, in which the two metal plates are placed in a partially
overlapping position that is on top of each other. The lap joint welding is applied for welding two
metal plates that are different in their thickness. It can either be single fillet lap joint or double
fillet lap joint where welding can be done on both sides of the plates for greater strength.

Corner Joints

Flush corner joint is restricted to thinner or lighter materials like 3mm sheet metal because deep
penetration is sometimes difficult.

Half open corner joint is used for materials that are thicker than 3mm. The penetration is better
than that of flush corner joint but it is also used for moderate loading.

Full-open corner joint is a strong joint especially when welded on both sides. It is used for metals
of all thickness.

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T-Joints

This weld joint occurs when two pieces are joined at right angles. The weld joint forms a “T”
shape.

Figure 2.7.4

Square T-Joint requires a fillet weld which can be made on one side or both sides. It can be used
for light or fairly thick materials. However, when maximum strength is required, weld should be
deposited on each side of the vertical plate.

Single Bevel T-Joint can withstand more severe loadings than the square T-joint. It is generally
used on plates of 13mm or less in thickness and where welding can only be done from one side.

Double Bevel T-Joint is used where heavy loads are applied and welding can be done on both
sides of the vertical plate.

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Edge Joints

Edge joints occur when the flat sides of two pieces of metal are welded together. A joint between
the edges of two or more parallel or nearly parallel members. Often with this type of joint, one
of the pieces is flanged.

Although found in plate work, this joint is more common in sheet metal work. Use an edge type
of welding joint only for joining members 6.5mm or less that are not subject to heavy stresses.

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 USING OXY-ACETYLENE GAS FOR WELDING AND CUTTING

A gas welding or cutting outfit consists of several components such as;

 Cylinder of oxygen gas

 Cylinder of acetylene gas
 Oxygen regulator
 Acetylene regulator
 Two lengths of coloured hoses (green, black or blue for oxygen and red or maroon for
acetylene)
 Torch or blow pipe
 Two flashback arrestors installed between the hose and the regulators or between the
hose and the torch
 Tips or nozzles
 Spark lighter

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Procedure for Lighting and Closing the Welding Torch
Before lighting up the torch, check for the following;

 Make sure that the adjustment screws for regulator pressure are backed out all the way.
 Ensure that the torch valves are fully closed
 Keep your distance from the front of the regulator
 Open the oxygen and acetylene cylinder valves slowly
 Carefully adjust the regulator p/screws to tip the pressure settings
 Check the torch valves by opening and closing them separately and fine-tune the pressure
settings on the regulators
 If you are cutting metal, depress the cutting lever and adjust the pressure before lighting
the flame

Follow these steps to light up the torch;

 Purge both the oxygen and acetylene gas lines separately

 Turn the fuel gas valve on, no more than 1/2 turn
 Tilt the lighter a bit to trap some fuel in the spark cup and light up the torch slowly with
the striker
 Increase the flow of acetylene into the torch until the flame appears to leave the end of
the tip and there is no smoke coming from the flame. The resultant diffused, luminous,
but sooty flame is pure acetylene burning in air. Turn up the fuel gas supply until the
smoke vanishes from the tail of the flame and the nozzle is now working at its normal
capacity with a suitable gas velocity. The flame now, although cleaner, is still of a relatively
low temperature
 Decrease the pressure until the flame goes back into the tip of the gun.
 Open the oxygen valve and make adjustments until you get to a neutral flame. Open the
blowpipe oxygen-control valve slowly and note the change in the character of the flame
as the oxygen is introduced. The body of the flame turns blue with the formation of a hazy
white zone which decreases in size with the development of a small greenish-white cone
at the end of the nozzle. Continue increasing the supply of oxygen until the white
"feather" of excess acetylene just disappears, leaving a clearly defined inner cone. This is
a correctly adjusted neutral flame consuming equal quantities of acetylene and oxygen
from the welding gas supplies and a further amount of oxygen from the atmosphere.
 Depress the oxygen lever and make any necessary adjustments to the flame
 When turning the torch off, shut the oxygen gas first, followed by the fuel.
 Shut the cylinder valves before shutting the regulators.

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Applications of Different Types of Flames

Neutral Flame: This flame is produced when the proportion of oxygen and acetylene is equal for
a complete combustion. To set this flame right, the acetylene valve on the blowpipe is first turned
on and lit. More acetylene is released until there is a bright flame having a slight smoke at the
top. The oxygen valve is now released gradually until the feathery edge of the inner cone
disappears. The flame produced now has two distinct zones with the inner cone having a well-
defined round edge.

The neutral flame is the most suitable for heating and also welding of all types of steel, copper,
aluminium and cast iron.

Neutral flames are used to weld both ferrous and nonferrous metals such as mild steel, cast iron,
copper and it alloys, stainless steel, aluminium, etc. welders are expected to adjust to neutral
before any other flame.

Oxidizing Flame: The flame is also produced by the combustion of acetylene and oxygen at the
tip of the blowpipe. The procedure for lighting the blowpipe is the same but after a neutral flame
has been obtained, the oxygen valve on the blowpipe is opened more to increase the proportion
of oxygen in the flame.

The oxidizing flame has an excess of oxygen in the flame i.e. the oxygen is more than normally
required for complete combustion. The inner cone is usually smaller than the neutral flame which
has a rounded inner cone. It can further be recognized by a slight hissing sound that is produces.

The oxidizing flame is not suitable for welding steel, aluminium, copper or cast iron because it
rapidly oxidizes these metals. It is only used for classes of non-ferrous metals, notably brass.

It is used to weld metals such as zinc alloys, copper, manganese steel, and cast iron. It is also
suitable for brazing.

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Diagram of welding flames

Carburizing Flame: This flame is produced by allowing acetylene gas to be in excess. As such,
there’s incomplete combustion of carbon and it can be absorbed by the metal to be welded to
increase its content especially certain type of mild steel.

Carburizing flame is clearly recognized by three flame zones:

 A clearly defined bluish-white inner cone

 White immediately cone indicating the amount of excess acetylene
 A light blue outer flare envelope.

This flare burns with a coarse rushing sound. The inner cone tip temperature is approximately
3700-degree Fahrenheit. If a carburizing flame is used for welding, carbon absorbs from the
flame, causing metals to boil. This metal is not clear as it boils, obtains high carbon steel, becomes
brittle, and subject to cracking. This flame finds useful application in hard surfacing of mild steel
and fusion welding of magnesium.

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 WELD IMPERFECTIONS

Discontinuities are imperfections in welds. Ideally, a sound weld should have no discontinuities
at all, but welds are not perfect; imperfections/flaws/faults/mistakes do exist in varying degrees.

There is a temptation to call discontinuities defects, but as a matter of terminology the terms
discontinuity and defect should be carefully distinguished by all inspectors. A defect is rejected,
some discontinuities are acceptable. A discontinuity becomes a defect when it exceeds
acceptable limits imposed by acceptance standards. An imperfection of lesser magnitude than
that is still a discontinuity, but it is not a defect.

The criteria used to discriminate between acceptable imperfections and defects are:

I. Types of discontinuity:
Various forms of discontinuity include;
 Porosity
 Blowholes
 Inclusions (metallic and non-metallic)
 Insufficient throat (underfill)
 Inadequate joint penetration
 Incomplete fusion
 Overlap
 Undercut
 Lamination
 Delamination
 Seams and laps
 Lamella tearing
 Cracks

II. Size of discontinuity:

The size of the discontinuity must be considered when you evaluate the structure
integrity of the entire weld. Acceptance standards specify the allowable size of
discontinuity in terms of linear dimensions such as inches or millimetres.
III. Location of discontinuity:
The location of a discontinuity may suggest the cause of the problem as well as its
seriousness. The location of porosity can identify where contamination exists. You must
consider the location and orientation of cracks to determine how much the load-carrying
ability of the structure will be degraded.

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 All three criteria must be considered to judge whether a discontinuity is severe enough to be
considered a defect.

i. Porosity

Porosity results when gas is entrapped in solidifying metal. This will be discussed only with
respect to welds (although porosity is also commonly seen in castings). The entrapped gas comes
from either the gas used in the welding process or the gas released from chemical reactions
occurring during the welding process. Proper welding technique avoids gas formation and
entrapment. Faulty or dirty materials may produce gas. The gas becomes trapped in the form of
porous discontinuities in the weld.

Porosity usually occurs in the form of rounded discontinuities, but in a severe case the porosity
is cylindrical. These large cylindrical pores are called “wormholes”. The presence of porosity is a
sign that the welding process is not being properly controlled or that the base metal and welding
fluxes are contaminated with gas producing elements. Generally speaking, porosity in small
amounts does not significantly intensify stress.

Elongated gas discontinuities extending from the root of the weld toward the surface are also
usually due to contamination. They are called piping porosity or sometimes “wormhole”, “gas
pockets or ‘’blowholes’’.

ii. Inclusions

Inclusions result when solid materials are entrapped in solidifying metal. Inclusions interrupt the
continuity of the weld, and some several integrity losses will result where they are present.

Non-metallic inclusions (slag and oxides) result from faulty welding techniques and the failure of
the designer to provide proper access for welding within the joint. Molten slag and oxides will
flow to the top of the weld if allowed. Sharp notches in joint boundaries or between passes often
cause slag to become entrapped under the molten weld metal parallel lines of elongated slag
inclusions sometimes called “wagon tracks” often occur in pipe welds.

Metallic inclusions are usually tungsten particles trapped in weld metal. They occur in gas
tungsten arc welding. Tungsten particles appear as light areas on radiographs because tungsten
is highly opaque to x-rays and gamma rays. Almost all other discontinuities show tip as dark areas
on radiographs. Other metallic inclusions may enter as electroslag welds or high energy welds.

iii. Incomplete Fusion

Incomplete fusion is the failure of the liquid weld metal to fuse into the total face area of the
joint. Incomplete fusion is usually caused by insufficient application of heat to all faces of the

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 joint. However, incomplete fusion can also be caused by the presence of oxides which inhibit
fusion by reaming tightly seemed to the base metal.

Typical imperfections can arise in the following situation:

 An excessively thick root face in a butt weld

 Too small a root gap
 Misplaced welds
 Failure to remove sufficient metal in cutting back to sound metal in a double sided weld
 Incomplete root fusion when using too low an arc energy (heat) input
 Too small a bevel angle
 Too large an electrode in MMA welding

iv. Overlap

Overlap is the protrusion of weld metal beyond the toe, face or root of the weld joint without
fusion. The resulting discontinuity is a severe mechanical notch on the surface. This discontinuity
is similar to incomplete fusion with the difference of location where the fusion failed to take
place.

Overlap is caused by the inability of the weld metal to fuse with the surface, especially when
tightly adhering oxides cover the base metal. Overlap results from lack of control of the welding
process in the form of insufficient heat (current too low), improper selection of welding materials
(lack of deoxidizers), or improper preparation of the joint (failure to remove scale or other surface
coatings).

v. Undercut

Undercut is a surface discontinuity from melting of the base metal at the junction of the weld
base and base metal. It takes the form of a mechanical notch at the fusion boundary. Undercut
is caused by the application of excessive heat (excessive welding current), which melts away basic
metal. In radiography, indications of undercut (also slag inclusions) along each side of the root of
a weld are sometimes called “wagon tracks”.

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vi. Crack

Cracks may occur in the weld or base metal or both when localized stresses exceed the strength
of the material. Cracking is generally associated with discontinuities in welds and base metal,
with notches, with high residual stresses and often with hydrogen embrittlement. Welding
related cracks look as though the metal were brittle. There is little evidence at the crack
boundaries that metal deformed before it cracked. Cracks can be classified as either hot cracks
or cold cracks. Hot cracks develop at high temperatures. They commonly form on preferential
solidification of alloys on the metal near the melting point. Hot cracks propagate between the
grains when the preferential solidification occurs.

Cold cracks develop after solidification is complete. Delayed cracks are commonly caused by
hydrogen in susceptible microstructure in the presence of high stress. Cold cracks may grow both
between grains and through grains.

Toe Cracks; Toe cracks are generally cold cracks. They begin and grow from the toe of the weld
where restraint stresses are highest. Toe cracks initiate approximately normal to the base of the
metal surface.

Root Cracks;Root cracks are longitudinal cracks in the root of the weld. They are generally a form
of hot crack.

Crater Cracks; Crater cracks occur in a crater formed by improper termination of a welding pass.
They are sometimes called star cracks, though they may have other shapes. Crater cracks are
shallow hot cracks.

Throat Crack; A throat crack is a longitudinal crack in the face of the weld running in the direction
of the axis.

Arc Strikes; Arc strikes represent unintentional melting or heating outside the intended weld
deposit area. They usually are caused by the welding arc but can be produced beneath an
improperly secured ground connection or produced during magnetic particle inspection. The
result is a small, melted area that can be the source of undercutting, hardening, or localized
cracking, depending upon the metal composition.

DISTORTION

Distortion is caused by initial expansion when heated and contraction when the metal cools.
Distortion results into metal being twisted or warped out of shape. Usually, heated metal will
return to its original shape and size when it cools. But in the case of metals which have been

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heated by the welding operation, such metals never return to the original size due to the restraint
caused by the weld beads holding the metal in the distorted position.

Expansion and contraction being normal phenomena in heat treatment cannot be prevented but
can however be controlled.

Types of Distortion

Welded sections or joints are normally affected by the following forces which cause distortion:

i. Angular Distortion: This is caused by contraction of the weld as it cools which tend to
pull the plates out of alignment. Angular distortion can be minimized by the following
techniques;
 Position the work piece slightly out of alignment so that the shrinking weld deposit will
pull the members into position.
 Use as little weld material as possible. Large bead will increase contraction.
 Develop a welding sequence that builds up the weld equally for each sides of the joint.
 Use staggered beads to balance the contracting forces on each side.

ii. Longitudinal Distortion: This causes the metal to bend upward in the direction of the
weld and it can be corrected or controlled by any of the following;
 Use back step and intermittent welding.
 Use small diameter electrodes at low current
 Peen the weld beads as you weld to stretch the bead and counteract its tendency to shrink
when it cools. Avoid over peening so as not to cause crack on the weld.
 Mount the points to be welded in a fixture to hold the points rigidly as they cool. The
fixture should be designed to position the parts slightly out of alignment so that the
contracting forces will pull the points into exact alignment.

iii. Transverse Distortion: This occurs when the cooling weld causes butt welded pieces
to draw together and sometimes overlap. This type of distortion can be corrected in
the following ways;
 Use of tack weld to position the work pieces running the full weld.
 Spacing the specimens

iv. Buckling/Bowing: This often occurs when sheet metal or thin sections are welded.
The thinnest of the material usually causes uneven expansion and contraction of the
welded area.
This problem can be minimized or controlled by;
 Use of electrode designed for sheet metal e.g. E6013

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  Maintain a short arc.
 Use a chill bar.

Factors That Affects Extent of Distortion

 Amount of welding
 Degree of restraint
 Procedure of welding
 Coefficient of expansion/ specific heat
 The amount of metal deposited
 Speed of deposit
 Number of runs or passes
 The type of metal being welded

Methods of Controlling Distortion

 Joint preparation
 Pre-setting and the use of wedges, jigs and chills
 Welding sequence
 Pre-heating
 Assembling Techniques

There are basically three types: tack welding, back-to-back and stiffening.

i. Tack welding; this is ideal for setting and maintaining a joint gap to resist transverse
distortion. Attention should be given to the number of tack welds, the size of weld and the
distance between the welds. There are three methods of tack welding:
 Tack weld straight through to the end of the joint
 Tack weld the end and use back step for tacking the remaining part of the joint
 Tack the centre of the joint and complete the tack welding by back stepping.
ii. Back to back; this type of technique has its two ends held with clamps with the wedge placed
between the weldment possibly in the middle and welding is done by alternating between
the ends and sides.
iii. Stiffening; this is used to prevent bowing. This involves getting two stiffeners in form of angle
iron or I-section cut into substantial length. The stiffeners are tacked closed to the joint with
1 opposing the other. Important to hold down weldment to prevent movement while
welding.
NOTE: Clamps, stiffeners and every form of restraint should be released immediately after
welding to allow contraction and prevent crack.

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