Chapter 8 Capacitors

Capacitors and capacitance

Series & parallel
Energy stored
Filled with dielectrics
1
Review: Potential of a Parallel-Plate Capacitor
 Let V = 0 at the From Ch 6 𝑄𝑄
𝐸𝐸(𝑠𝑠) = (−𝑠𝑠)̂
negative plate (Slide 31): 𝐴𝐴𝜀𝜀0
 Find the potential
inside the capacitor Then, from Ch 7:
𝑠𝑠
𝑉𝑉(𝑠𝑠) − 𝑉𝑉(0) = − ∫0 (Q/A𝜀𝜀0 )(−𝑠𝑠)̂ ⋅ 𝑠𝑠𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
̂

𝑉𝑉(𝑠𝑠) = 𝑄𝑄/𝐴𝐴𝜀𝜀0 𝑠𝑠 = 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸


ds
 Potential increases linearly with s
 E points in direction of decreasing V
 ∆V across capacitor is:

Δ𝑉𝑉 = 𝑄𝑄/𝐴𝐴𝜀𝜀0 𝑑𝑑 = 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸

2
Class question

The electric field at the dot is

A. 10î V/m
B. –10î V/m
C. 20î V/m
D. 30î V/m
E. –30î V/m

3
Kirchhoff’s Loop Law
 For any path that starts and ends at
the same point:

Gustav Kirchhoff
1824 - 1887

 Must be true, since for conservative forces, the potential

difference only depends upon the initial and final
positions.
We’ll come back to this when we do circuits..
4
Reminder: Conductors in Electrostatic Equilibrium

Ch 6 Concepts:
All excess charge on surface.
The electric field inside is zero.
The external electric field is
perpendicular to the surface
at the surface.
A corona discharge
Ch 7 concept occurs at pointed metal
The surface is an equipotential. tips where the electric
field can be very strong.
Also, can be shown that:
The electric field is strongest
at sharp corners of the conductor’s
surface.

5
Class question
Metal wires are attached
to the terminals of a 3 V
battery. What is the
potential difference
between points 1 and 2?

A. 6 V
B. 3 V
C. 0 V
D. Undefined.
E. Not enough information to tell.

6
Sources of Electric Potential
 A separation of charge
creates a potential
difference.

 Shuffling your feet on

the carpet can cause
a potential difference
between you and other
objects in the room.

 Could cause sparks!

7
Van de Graaff Generator

8
Battery: Charge escalator model
 Electrochemical work done to move
positive charge to top, negative to bottom.

 Define the EMF,

ℇ = Wchem / q

Creates a ∆V between the

terminals that can make
charges move when making a
circuit. Recall positive
charges want to go from high
potential to low potential!
9
Class question D

The charge escalator in a battery does 4.8 ×10–19 J

of work for each positive ion that it moves from the
negative to the positive terminal. What is the
battery’s emf?

A. 9 V
B. 4.8 V
C. 3 V
D. 4.8 ×10–19 V
E. I have no idea.

10
Batteries in Series
 The total potential difference
of batteries in series is
simply the sum of their
individual terminal voltages:

 For this flashlight:

ΔVseries = ΔV1 + ΔV2
= 1.5 V + 1.5 V
= 3.0 V

11
Capacitance and Capacitors
Saw on slide 2 that:
𝜂𝜂 𝑄𝑄
Δ𝑉𝑉 = 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 = 𝑑𝑑 = 𝑑𝑑
d 𝜀𝜀0 𝐴𝐴𝜀𝜀0

Define the capacitance

𝑄𝑄 𝐴𝐴
𝐶𝐶 ≡ = 𝜀𝜀0
Area Δ𝑉𝑉 𝑑𝑑
A
 C depends on geometry + material in between (what’s the material here?)
 The SI unit of capacitance is the Farad ( 1F = 1 C/V)
 If C is known, can compute Q for a given ∆V.

 Usually, you buy a capacitor

𝑄𝑄 = 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 of a known capacitance.
 They come in many shapes
& sizes! 12
Class question

What is the capacitance of

these two electrodes?

A. 8 nF
B. 4 nF
C. 2 nF
D. 1 nF
E. Some other value

13
Capacitance and Capacitors

Capacitors are important elements

in electric circuits. They come in a
variety of sizes and shapes. The keys on many computer
keyboards are capacitor switches.
Pressing the key pushes two
capacitor plates closer together,
increasing their capacitance.

14
In integrated circuits
Integrated circuits often use very small capacitors!
Notice the scale
Brown insulator in between is called a “dielectric” (more on this later)

Capacitors

15
Charging a Capacitor

 Figure shows a capacitor

just after it has been
connected to a battery.
(Initially, plates at V = 0)

 Positive (negative) charges

will flow from high (low)
potential to low (high)
potential for ~nanosecond,
until the capacitor is fully
charged.

 Once each capacitor plate is at same potential as the

battery terminal its connected to, there will be no more
current flow.
16
Charging a Capacitor

 Now, a fully
charged
capacitor.

 The system is in
electrostatic
equilibrium.

C = Q / ∆V always refers to a fully charged capacitor.

17
Combinations of Capacitors
 The circuit diagrams below illustrate two basic
combinations: parallel capacitors and series
capacitors.
 When we do circuit analysis, we will need to determine
the “equivalent capacitance” Ceq of the combination.

18
Capacitors Combined in Parallel
 Consider two capacitors C1 and
C2 connected in parallel.
 The voltage across them must
be the same! Why?
 The total charge drawn from the
battery is Q = Q1 + Q2.
 In figure (b) we have replaced
the capacitors with a single
“equivalent” capacitor:

Ceq = C1 + C2 19
Capacitors Combined in Parallel
 If capacitors C1, C2, C3, … are in parallel, their equivalent
capacitance is:

Conducting wires

Key point
 For parallel capacitors:
Each side of the capacitors must be connected directly by a conductor.
 In the above fig, all of the top plates are directly connected, and all of the bottom plates
are directly connected by a conducting wire.
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Class question

The equivalent capacitance is

A. 9 μF
B. 6 μF
C. 3 μF
D. 2 μF
E. 1 μF

21
Capacitors Combined in Series
 Consider two capacitors C1 and
C2 connected in series.
 The battery supplies charge Q.
 The total potential diff. across
both capacitors is
ΔVC = ΔV1 + ΔV2.

 The inverse of the equivalent

capacitance is

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Capacitors Combined in Series

 If capacitors C1, C2, C3, … are

in series, their equivalent
capacitance is

Key point
 For series capacitors: Direct wire connection as
shown above. No “junctions” in between.
 C1 and C2 are in series, but C3 is NOT in
series with C1 or C2. C3 C4
23
Class question

The equivalent capacitance is

A. 9 μF
B. 6 μF
C. 3 μF
D. 2 μF
E. 1 μF

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Analyzing a circuit (1)

Ultimately what you want to know is: for each capacitor, how much
charge is on it and what is the voltage across it.
To do this, you first reduce the circuit to the “equivalent capacitance”. Then, work
backwards to go back to the original circuit.
The only formulas needed: Q = C∆V, and series and parallel capacitors’ formulae.

You also need to understand :

 For capacitors in series: 𝑄𝑄 𝐶𝐶1 = 𝑄𝑄 𝐶𝐶2 = ⋯ = 𝑄𝑄 𝐶𝐶𝑁𝑁 = 𝑄𝑄(𝐶𝐶𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 )
 For capacitors in parallel: 𝑉𝑉 𝐶𝐶1 = 𝑉𝑉 𝐶𝐶2 = ⋯ = 𝑉𝑉 𝐶𝐶𝑁𝑁 = 𝑉𝑉(𝐶𝐶𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 )
25
Analyzing a circuit (2)

Reduce to equivalent circuit

 Compute equivalent capacitances.

 Do one step at a time, unless it’s
absolutely trivial.

26
Analyzing a circuit (2)

Reduce to equivalent circuit Work backward to actual circuit

 Compute equivalent capacitances.  Work backward, mostly using Q=C∆V

 Do one step at a time, unless it’s  Series capacitors: all caps, including Ceq,
absolutely trivial. have same charge. ∆V = ∆V1 + ∆V2 + …
 Parallel capacitors: all caps, including Ceq
have same ∆V across them. Q = Q1 + Q2 +

 There is a very high chance you will have to do something like this on an exam!
27
Series and Parallel Capacitors
Find the equivalent capacitance of this circuit, and find ∆𝑽𝑽𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂
Series

C/2 C/2 C/2

C

Series Series Parallel

1 1 1 Ceq = C / 2
= + ⇒ Ceq = C / 2 Ceq = C / 2 + C / 2 ⇒ Ceq = C
Ceq C C

Parallel C/2
Ceq C / 2 + C
=
⇒ Ceq = 3C / 2
(3/2)C
C/2
C/2 C
C

28
Series and Parallel Capacitors
 Finding ∆𝑽𝑽𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂 might seem “scary”, but…
 Note: 3 parallel paths, each through two capacitors
 By inspecting diagram carefully, you can redraw it so that
the series and parallel combinations are more easily seen.
 You can “slide” caps, wires, around, change length of wires,
as long as you don’t change the potential on either side
of any capacitor.
𝑄𝑄
 You can’t slide a wire over a capacitor, since ∆𝑉𝑉 = .
𝐶𝐶
It will become a different circuit.

 Since the voltage drop across all of the capacitors in left figure must be the same
 Va = Vb, or ∆Vab = 0.

29
The Energy Stored in a Capacitor
 Consider a capacitor being
charged.
 As dq is transferred to
the capacitor, its energy
increases by
𝑞𝑞
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑉𝑉(𝑞𝑞)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝐶𝐶
 The total energy
transferred from the
battery to the capacitor is

30
The Energy Stored in a Capacitor
 Capacitors are important elements in electric circuits
because of their ability to store energy.
 The charge on the two plates of ±Q and their
separation establishes a potential difference
ΔV = Q/C between the two electrodes.
 Alternately, the potential energy stored is

31
The Energy Stored in a Capacitor
 A capacitor can be
charged slowly but then
can release the energy
very quickly.
 An important medical
application of capacitors is
the defibrillator.

 A heart attack or a serious injury can cause the heart to enter

a state known as fibrillation in which the heart muscles
twitch randomly and cannot pump blood.

 A strong electric shock through the chest completely stops

the heart, giving the cells that control the heart’s rhythm a
chance to restore the proper heartbeat. 32
Class Question

A capacitor charged to 1.5 V stores 2.0 mJ of energy.

If the capacitor is charged to 3.0 V, it will store

A. 1.0 mJ
B. 2.0 mJ
C. 4.0 mJ
D. 6.0 mJ
E. 8.0 mJ

33
Example: Storing Energy in a Capacitor

Equivalent power of 120 100W light bulbs (for 1 ms)

34
The Energy Density in the Electric Field
 The energy density inside a capacitor is:
𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 1⁄2 𝐶𝐶(∆𝑉𝑉)2 1 ∆𝑉𝑉 2 1 𝜀𝜀0 𝐴𝐴 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 2 𝜀𝜀0 2
𝑢𝑢𝐸𝐸 = = = 𝐶𝐶 = = 𝐸𝐸
𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐. 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 2 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 2 𝑑𝑑 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 2

𝜀𝜀0 2
𝑢𝑢𝐸𝐸 = 𝐸𝐸
2
[ J / m3 ]

 In this expression, it
is viewed that the
energy is stored in
the electric field!

 Fields carry energy!

35
Dielectrics
 Consider a parallel-plate 𝑉𝑉0 ≡ ∆𝑉𝑉 0
capacitor with the plates
separated by a vacuum.

 If the fully-charged
voltage is 𝑉𝑉0 , the charge
on the plates will be
Q0 = C0𝑉𝑉0 .

 Here, “0” signifies a

vacuum-filled
capacitor.
A
C0 = ε 0
d 36
Dielectrics (fixed charge on plates)
 An insulator in a
capacitor is called a
dielectric.

 The insulator as a whole

is electrically neutral, but
the external electric field
polarizes the dielectric

37
Dielectrics (fixed charge on plates)
𝐸𝐸 = 𝐸𝐸0 + 𝐸𝐸𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖

38
Dielectric Constant
 Dielectrics generally have larger
permittivity than vacuum, namely ε > ε0.
𝐴𝐴 𝐴𝐴
𝐶𝐶 = 𝜀𝜀 𝐶𝐶0 = 𝜀𝜀0
𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑

𝐶𝐶 𝜀𝜀
𝜅𝜅 ≡ =
𝐶𝐶0 𝜀𝜀0

 κ = dielectric constant
 κ is unitless, and κ≥1.
ε
 κ = 1 for vacuum

 Capacitance increases by κ
when a dielectric is inserted
into a capacitor. 39
A simple application of capacitors to everyday life…

40
Dielectric Strength
 Capacitors almost always involves the use of a solid or
liquid dielectric.

 All materials have a maximum electric

field they can sustain without
breakdown—the production of a spark.
This is called the dielectric strength.

 The dielectric strength of

air is about 3 × 106 V/m.
(or ~3000 V / mm)

41
Properties of some dielectrics

(this is
16000 V per 1 mm
Distilled thickness)

42
Example: A Water-Filled Capacitor

Before immersion After immersion

C0 = 5 nF C=?
V0 = 160 V V=?

43
Example: A Water-Filled Capacitor
Before immersion After immersion
C0 = 5 nF C=?
V0 = 160 V V=?

a) From the table, κ = 80, so: 𝐶𝐶 = 𝜅𝜅𝐶𝐶0 = 80 × 5 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 = 𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒 𝐧𝐧𝐧𝐧

The charge on the capacitor plates does not change, since
it’s not connected to any source of charge.
𝑉𝑉 = 𝑄𝑄/𝐶𝐶 = (𝐶𝐶0 𝑉𝑉0 )/𝐶𝐶 = 𝑉𝑉0 /𝜅𝜅 = 𝟐𝟐 V

b)
 Energy stored originally: 𝑈𝑈0 = (1/2)𝐶𝐶0 𝑉𝑉02 = 64 𝜇𝜇J

 Energy stored after: 𝑈𝑈 = (1/2)𝐶𝐶𝑉𝑉 2 = 0.8 𝜇𝜇J

Energy decreases by factor of 80! Where did the energy go?

* Goes into polarizing the dielectric! 44
Second possibility: Voltage source not removed
Suppose the capacitor stays connected to a 160 V power
supply (PS) before & after going in the water?
What happens in this case?
 Voltage on plates remains at 160 V.
 But, the capacitance still increases from 5 nF  400 nF.

𝑄𝑄0 = 𝐶𝐶0 𝑉𝑉 = 5 × 10−9 𝐹𝐹 (160𝑉𝑉) = 𝟎𝟎. 𝟖𝟖 𝝁𝝁𝐂𝐂 80X increase!

PS transfers charge to
𝑄𝑄 = 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 = 400 × 10−9 𝐹𝐹 (160𝑉𝑉) = 𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔 𝝁𝝁𝐂𝐂 the capacitor!

 What about the energy stored?

 Energy stored originally: 𝑈𝑈0 = (1/2)𝐶𝐶0 𝑉𝑉02 = 64 𝜇𝜇J
 Energy stored after: 𝑈𝑈 = (1/2)𝐶𝐶𝑉𝑉02 = 𝜅𝜅𝑈𝑈0 = 5120 𝜇𝜇J

 Stored energy INCREASES by 80 (value of κ)

 How did stored energy increase? Who did work on the system
to increase the stored energy?
45
Example: Energy Density of a Defibrillator (1)

C = 150 uF = 150 x 10-6 F

V = 2100 V
d = 0.050 mm
κ = 120

46
Example: Energy Density of a Defibrillator (2)
a) Model defribillator as a parallel plate capacitor C = 150 x 10-6 F
V = 2100 V
𝐴𝐴 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶
𝐶𝐶 = 𝜅𝜅𝐶𝐶0 = 𝜅𝜅𝜀𝜀0 ⇒ 𝐴𝐴 = = 7.1 m2 d = 0.050 mm
𝑑𝑑 𝜅𝜅𝜀𝜀0 κ = 120

b) The energy stored is:

𝑈𝑈 = (1/2)𝐶𝐶𝑉𝑉 2 = 330 J
The energy density stored is: Could also use
E = V/d, then use
𝑢𝑢 = 𝑈𝑈/𝑉𝑉 = 𝑈𝑈/(𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴) = 9.3 × 105 J/m3
𝑢𝑢 = ( ½)𝜀𝜀𝐸𝐸2, 𝜀𝜀 = κ𝜀𝜀0

 330 J is a substantial amount of energy! And it is delivered very quickly as the capacitor
discharges through the patient’s chest.
 330 J is equivalent to dropping a 1 kg mass from 100 ft! (Imagine that landing on your foot!)

47