Module II

Phonetics and Phonology

Phonetics
• Phonetics is the scientific study of the physical properties of speech
sounds. It explores how sounds are produced (articulatory), how they
are transmitted through the air (acoustic), and how they are
perceived by the ear and brain (auditory).
1. Articulatory Phonetics
• Articulatory phonetics deals with how speech sounds are produced
by the movement and coordination of the speech organs, such as the
tongue, lips, and vocal cords.
• Key Concepts:
• Place of Articulation: The location in the vocal tract where airflow is
constricted to produce a sound (e.g., bilabial, alveolar).
• Manner of Articulation: The type of constriction and the degree to
which airflow is restricted (e.g., stops, fricatives).
• Voicing: Whether the vocal cords vibrate (voiced) or not (voiceless)
during sound production.
2. Acoustic Phonetics
• Acoustic phonetics examines the physical properties of speech sounds
as they travel through the air. It studies the sound waves produced by
speech and their characteristics.
• Key Concepts:
• Frequency: The pitch of the sound, determined by the rate of
vibration of the sound waves (measured in Hertz).
• Amplitude: The loudness of the sound, determined by the height of
the sound wave.
• Formants: The resonant frequencies in the human vocal tract that
shape vowel sounds.
3. Auditory Phonetics
• Auditory phonetics investigates how speech sounds are perceived by the
ear, auditory nerves, and brain. It focuses on the cognitive and perceptual
aspects of hearing and processing speech sounds.
• Key Concepts:
• Speech Perception: How the brain processes and interprets the sounds
received by the ears.
• Categorical Perception: The phenomenon where the boundaries between
different speech sounds are perceived in a categorical manner rather than
a gradient.
• Phoneme Recognition: The ability to identify and distinguish between
different phonemes in speech.
Speech Mechanism
Respiratory System
Lungs:
Air is pushed out of the lungs through the trachea to create airflow.
Muscles of the Chest
Muscles between the ribs that assist in breathing by expanding
and contracting the ribcage.
Windpipe (trachea)
Phonatory System
Larynx (Adam’s Apple)
Also known as the voice box, it houses the vocal cords (vocal
folds). The larynx is located in the throat.
Vocal Cords (Vocal Folds)
Two bands of muscle tissue that vibrate to produce sound when
air passes through them. The tension and length of the vocal
cords affect pitch and volume.
Glottis
The space between the vocal cords, through which air passes to
create sound.
I. Voiceless Sounds / Breathed Sounds
II. Voiced Sound
Articulatory System
Pharynx (located behind the nasal cavities and mouth, extending to
the larynx)
Oral Cavity (Mouth)
Nasal Cavity
Roof of the Mouth
1. Teeth Ridge /Alveolar Ridge
2. Hard Palate
3. Soft Palate / Velum
Tongue (Tip; Blade; Front; Back)
Teeth
Lips
Uvula
Organs of Speech
Speech Sounds
• Speech sounds are the individual units of sound that make up spoken
language.
• VOWELS
• CONSONANTS
VOWELS
• Voiced sounds during the production of which the air escapes
through the mouth freely and continuously, unaccompanied by any
audible frictional noise.
• Active articular: Tongue – is raised towards the passive articulator
(the roof of the mouth), in such a way as to leave sufficient space
between them for the air to escape freely and continuously.
• Vowel Limit: The highest level to which the tongue can be raised and
a sound produced without any frictional noise.
Classification of Vowels
• Position of the Lips: rounded; unrounded; spread; neutral
• The part of the tongue raised: Front; Back; Central
• The height to which the tongue is raised: high/close; low/open; half-
high/half-close; half-low/half-open; (Alternative terms: high; low;
lower-high; lower-mid)
Cardinal Vowels
• Specially selected vowel sounds which can conveniently be used as
points of reference from which other vowels can be measured.
• They are not actual vowels belonging to any particular language.
• They can be used as points of reference with which the vowels of
particular languages can be compared.
• They serve as a yard stick.
Secondary Cardinal Vowels
• 10 derived from the 8 primary ones.
• Nos. 1 to 5 with lips rounded (called secondary cardinal vowels Nos. 9
– 13)
• Nos. 6 to 8 with lips unrounded (called secondary cardinal vowels
Nos. 14-16).
• Nos. 17 and 18 have tongue positions intermediate between those of
1 and 8.
Vowels of English RP
Phonology (Phonemics)
• Deals with distinctive sounds and their specific patterning in a
particular language, ie., their functional behaviours, their
contributory possibilities or syllabic structure, and the nature and use
of sich prosodic features as stress, pitch, intonation, etc.
• Phoneme: Smallest distinctive unit of sound in the sound system of a
language.
• They are distinctive or contrastive ie., when one phoneme is
substituted by another, it produces a meaning change.
Distribution (Phonemes)
• Units which can substitute for one another in the same linguistic
environment are said to be in contrastive or parallel distribution, and
those which do not occur in the same linguistic environment are said
to be in non-contrastive or complementary distribution.
• Phonemes are in contrastive distribution.
• Phoneme is a minimal distinctive sound unit of a language, minimal
means it cannot be further subdivided, and distinctive means it
causes a change in meaning.
Minimal Pairs
• Pair of words which differ from each other only in one sound
segment.
• Eg: fit and sit; bet and pet;
Phonemic Distribution
• Contrastive Distribution: Phonemes are in contrastive distribution
when their presence in the same phonetic environment leads to a
change in meaning. This is the basis for identifying phonemes in a
language.
• Example: In English, the phonemes /p/ and /b/ are in contrastive
distribution because changing one to the other changes the meaning
of a word: "pat" vs. "bat."
Allophones
• The different, concrete, phonetic realizations of the same phoneme
according to its phonetic environment.
• They are in complementary or non-contrastive distribution.
Distribution of Allophones
• The distribution of allophones refers to the specific contexts in which
these different variations occur.
• Allophones of the same phoneme do not change the meaning of a
word, but they may sound slightly different depending on their
position in a word or the sounds surrounding them.
Types of Allophonic Distribution
• Complementary Distribution:Allophones are in complementary
distribution when they occur in mutually exclusive phonetic
environments. This means that each allophone appears in a specific
context where the other allophone cannot appear.
• Example: In English, the [p] sound in "pin" (aspirated [pʰ]) and "spin"
(unaspirated [p]) are allophones of the same phoneme /p/. The
aspirated [pʰ] occurs at the beginning of a stressed syllable, while the
unaspirated [p] occurs after /s/ in the same syllable.
• Free Variation: Allophones are in free variation when they can appear
in the same phonetic environment without changing the meaning of
the word.
• Example: The English word "stop" can be pronounced with a released
[p] or an unreleased [p̚]. Both variations are acceptable, and the
meaning of the word remains unchanged.
Syllable and Syllabic Structure
• A syllable is a basic unit of speech sound, typically composed of a
vowel sound, and optionally one or more consonant sounds.
• Syllables are the building blocks of words, and the structure of a
syllable can influence how words are pronounced and understood in
different languages.
• Syllable Structure: The typical syllable structure in many languages
can be broken down into three main components: Onset; Nucleus &
Coda.
[Link]:
1. The onset is the initial consonant or consonant cluster that precedes the
vowel in a syllable. Not all syllables have an onset; some syllables begin with
a vowel.
2. Example: In the word "cat," the onset is /k/. In "star," the onset is /st/. In
"apple," the first syllable has no onset.
[Link]:
1. The nucleus is the core of the syllable and is usually a vowel. In some cases, a
consonant can serve as the nucleus, especially in syllabic consonants.
2. Example: In "cat," the nucleus is /æ/. In "bird," the nucleus is /ɜːr/. In
"button," the second syllable has a syllabic consonant /n/ as the nucleus.
[Link]:
1. The coda is the consonant or consonant cluster that follows the nucleus in a
syllable. Like the onset, not all syllables have a coda.
2. Example: In "cat," the coda is /t/. In "car," the coda is /r/. In "see," there is no
coda.
Syllable Structure Patterns
• The combination of these components forms various syllable structures, which
can be represented as sequences of Cs (consonants) and Vs (vowels):
• V (Vowel only): Examples include "a," "I," and "oh."
• CV (Consonant + Vowel): Examples include "me," "no," and "to."
• CVC (Consonant + Vowel + Consonant): Examples include "cat," "dog," and
"bed."
• CCV (Consonant Cluster + Vowel): Examples include "stew," "blue," and "tree."
• CCVC (Consonant Cluster + Vowel + Consonant): Examples include "stop,"
"trap," and "clap."
• CVCC (Consonant + Vowel + Consonant Cluster): Examples include "mask,"
"find," and "bump."
Open vs. Closed Syllables
• Open Syllables: A syllable that ends in a vowel (i.e., has no coda) is
called an open syllable.

Example: "go" (CV) and "he" (CV).

• Closed Syllables: A syllable that ends in a consonant (i.e., has a coda)
is called a closed syllable.

Example: "cat" (CVC) and "sit" (CVC).

Syllabic Consonants
• In some cases, a consonant can act as the nucleus of a syllable,
known as a syllabic consonant. This occurs most often with liquids
(like /l/ and /r/) and nasals (like /m/ and /n/).
• Example: In the word "bottle" (/ˈbɒtl̩/), the second syllable is often
realized with a syllabic /l/ where the /l/ functions as the nucleus of
the syllable.
Suprasegmental features (prosodic features)
• The aspects of speech that extend beyond individual phonemes
(segments) and influence larger units such as syllables, words, or
phrases.
• These features include stress, intonation, tone, and length, and they
play a crucial role in conveying meaning, emotion, and emphasis in
spoken language.
Word Stress; Sentence Stress
• Word Stress: The emphasis on a particular syllable within a word.

For example, in English, the word "present" has different meanings

based on stress: 'PREsent (noun) vs. preSENT (verb).
• Sentence Stress: The emphasis on particular words within a sentence
to convey meaning or focus.

For example, "I did say that" (emphasizing confirmation) vs. "I did say
that" (emphasizing the action).
Strong and Weak forms
• Certain words can be pronounced in two different ways depending on
their emphasis within a sentence—these are known as strong forms
and weak forms.
• Strong Forms: The strong form of a word is used when it is stressed or
emphasized in speech.
Strong forms occur when a word is pronounced in isolation or when it
is emphasized for clarity or contrast.
Examples:
• "can" (strong form: /kæn/) in "I can do it." (emphasizing ability)
• "at" (strong form: /æt/) in "I’m looking at you."
• Weak Forms: The weak form is used when the word is unstressed
within a sentence.

Weak forms are common in fast, fluent speech where certain words,
especially function words like articles, prepositions, conjunctions, and
auxiliary verbs, are not emphasized.

Examples:
• "can" (weak form: /kən/) in "I can see you." (unstressed, blending with other
words)
• "at" (weak form: /ət/) in "I’m looking at it."
More examples
1. "a" (Indefinite article)
• Strong form: /eɪ/
• Example: "I want a book, not a magazine." (for emphasis)
• Weak form: /ə/
• Example: "I want a cup of tea." (normal, unstressed speech)
2. "the" (Definite article)
• Strong form: /ðiː/ (before vowels)
• Example: "The apple is on the table." (before a vowel sound)
• Weak form: /ðə/
• Example: "The boy is playing." (unstressed, before consonants)
3. "and" (Conjunction)
• Strong form: /ænd/
• Example: "He needs bread and water." (emphasizing both elements equally)
• Weak form: /ənd/, /ən/, or even /n/
• Example: "Bread and butter." (fast speech, weak form)
4. "of" (Preposition)
• Strong form: /ɒv/
• Example: "He is a friend of mine." (stressed for emphasis)
• Weak form: /əv/ or /ə/
• Example: "A cup of tea." (fast speech, weak form)
5. "can" (Auxiliary verb)
• Strong form: /kæn/
• Example: "Can you help me?" (used for emphasis or in isolation)
• Weak form: /kən/ or /kn̩/
• Example: "I can do it." (unstressed, blends into sentence)
6. "have" (Auxiliary verb)
• Strong form: /hæv/
• Example: "They have left already." (emphasizing action)
• Weak form: /əv/ or /v/
• Example: "They have left." (normal, unstressed speech)
7. "to" (Preposition)
• Strong form: /tuː/
• Example: "We are going to the park." (emphasized)
• Weak form: /tə/
• Example: "I want to go." (unstressed, fast speech)
8. "him" (Pronoun)
• Strong form: /hɪm/
• Example: "Him? Are you sure?" (when emphasizing the person)
• Weak form: /ɪm/
• Example: "I saw him yesterday." (weak, unstressed)
9. "for" (Preposition)
• Strong form: /fɔːr/
• Example: "This gift is for you." (emphasized)
• Weak form: /fər/ or /fə/
• Example: "This is for you." (fast, weak)
10. "some" (Determiner)
• Strong form: /sʌm/
• Example: "Would you like some coffee?" (emphasized)
• Weak form: /səm/
• Example: "I bought some apples." (weak, unstressed)
Rhythm
• Refers to the pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables in speech,
creating a natural flow.
• English is a stress-timed language, meaning that the intervals
between stressed syllables tend to be fairly regular, regardless of the
number of unstressed syllables in between.
• This gives English its characteristic rhythm, which differs from
syllable-timed languages (like Spanish or French), where each syllable
takes approximately the same amount of time.
Stressed and Unstressed Syllables
• Stressed syllables are pronounced more loudly, clearly, and with a
longer duration than unstressed syllables, which are softer, shorter,
and more reduced.
• Stressed syllables: Emphasized parts of words or sentences (e.g., content
words like nouns, verbs, adjectives).
• Unstressed syllables: Less prominent parts (e.g., function words like articles,
prepositions, conjunctions).
Pitch
• Pitch refers to the perceived highness or lowness of a sound, which is
determined by the frequency of the sound waves.
• In speech, pitch is associated with the vibration rate of the vocal
cords.
• The faster the vocal cords vibrate, the higher the pitch; the slower
they vibrate, the lower the pitch.
Intonation
• Intonation is the variation of pitch over the course of an utterance,
such as a sentence or phrase.
• It involves the rise and fall of pitch and is crucial for conveying
meaning beyond the literal words being spoken.
Intonation Patterns
• Different intonation patterns can signal different functions or
meanings:
• Rising Intonation: Often used at the end of yes/no questions (e.g.,
"Are you coming?").
• Falling Intonation: Typically used in declarative sentences (e.g., "I’m
going home.") and wh-questions (e.g., "Where are you going?").
• Rising-Falling Intonation: Can be used to indicate emphasis, certainty,
or to mark the end of a list (e.g., "He brought apples, oranges, and
bananas.").
Juncture
• Juncture refers to the way in which words and sounds are connected
or separated in speech.
• It plays a crucial role in distinguishing between different meanings of
phrases and words that might otherwise be confusing.
• Juncture involves the boundaries between phonemes, syllables, or
words, and how these boundaries are perceived by listeners.
• Example: The phrases "ice cream" and "I scream" are differentiated
by a juncture. In "ice cream," there is a clear boundary between the
syllables, whereas in "I scream," the syllables flow more smoothly.
Assimilation
• Assimilation is a phonological process where a sound changes to
become more like a neighboring sound in terms of one or more
phonetic features, such as place of articulation, manner of
articulation, or voicing.
• This process occurs naturally in spoken language to facilitate
smoother and more efficient speech.
Types of Assimilation
• Progressive Assimilation: In progressive assimilation, a sound
influences a following sound, causing the latter to adopt some
features of the former.

Example: In English, the plural suffix "-s" changes its pronunciation

based on the final sound of the preceding word:"cats" [kæts]
(voiceless /s/ after the voiceless /t/)"dogs" [dɒgz] (voiced /z/ after the
voiced /g/)
• Regressive Assimilation:
• In regressive assimilation (also known as anticipatory assimilation), a
sound changes to resemble a preceding sound.
• Example: In English, the prefix "in-" changes depending on the first
consonant of the root word:
• "input" [ˈɪnpʊt] (remains as /n/ before /p/)
• "impossible" [ɪmˈpɒsəbl̩] (/n/ becomes /m/ before the bilabial /p/)
Elision
• a phonological process in which one or more sounds (usually vowels
or consonants) are omitted or "elided" during speech.
• This often occurs to make speech more fluent and easier to produce,
particularly in fast or casual conversation.
• Elision is common in many languages and plays a significant role in
natural, everyday speech.
International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)
• IPA is a phonetic notation system that uses a set of symbols to
represent each distinct sound that exists in human spoken language.
• It encompasses all languages spoken on earth.
• The system was created in 1886 and was last updated in 2005. It
consists of 107 letters, 52 diacritics, and four prosodic marks.
• The IPA is based on the Latin alphabet, but includes some non-Latin
characters as well.
• A “diacritical mark” or “diacritical point”, “diacritical signis” is a glyph
added to a letter, or basic glyph.
Examples of Diacritical Marks
• 1. Acute Accent (´)
• 2. Grave Accent (`)
• 3. Circumflex (ˆ)
• 4. Tilde (˜)
• 5. Umlaut/Diaeresis (¨)
• 6. Cedilla (¸)
Diacritical Marks in English
• While diacritical marks are rare in native English words, they are
often retained in borrowed words from other languages:
• Café (from French, with an acute accent on the é)
• Naïve (from French, with a diaeresis over the i)
• Resume vs. Résumé (the latter, from French, has two acute accents)