SMA 409: DIFFERENTIAL GEOMETRY
Mrs. Victoria M Mokua
Maseno University
SEPT-DEC 2013
1 Vector functions of a real variable: Differen-
tial geometry of curves
It is assumed that the reader is familiar with the idea of a real function f (x),
say of variable x. In this chapter, the properties of vector functions F (t) of the
real variable t will be discussed. Suppose that the components of the vectors
F (t) = (f1 (t), f2 (t), f3 (t)) are single-valued functions of a real variable t. Then,
F (t) is called a vector function of a real variable t. In most applications, t is a
continuous variable and f1 (t), f2 (t), f3 (t) are continuous over some interval of t.
Continuous: Roughly speaking, a function is continuous if its value does not
change suddenly at any point.
Example 1.1. F (t) = (1, t, t−1 ) for −1 ≤ t ≤ 1 is NOT continuous because as
t increases through zero the z−component changes value from −∞ to ∞.
Excercise 1.2. Explain whether or not the following functions are continuous
(i) F (t) = (2, t1/2 , sin t : 0 ≤ t < ∞)
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t t 3 ; −∞ < t ≤ 2
(ii) F (t) =
2t2 2 6t−1 ; 2 < t < ∞
Example 1.3. Let a, b and c be fixed vectors in space. The equation f(t) =
a − 2tb + t2 c, −2 ≤ t ≤ 2 defines a vector function of t with the domain
−2 ≤ t ≤ 2.
The table below shows some assigned vectors:
t -2 -1 0 1 2
f (t) a+4b+4c a+2b+c a a-2b+c a-4b+4c
Suppose that a = e1 + 2e2 , b = e2 − e3 , c = e1 − e3 .
Then,
f(t) = (e1 + 2e2 ) − 2t(e2 − e3 ) + t2 (e1 − e3 ) (1.1)
= (1 + t2 )e1 + (2 − 2t)e2 + (2t − t2 )e3 (1.2)
Here f is expressed in terms of the three scalar functions, f1 (t) = (1+t2 ), f2 (t) =
(2 − 2t), ft = (2t − t2 ), its components with respect to (e1 , e2 , e3 ).
As indicated in the above example, f(t) uniquely determines three scalar
functions f1 (t), f2 (t), f3 (t) its components with respect to the basis. Conversely,
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three scalar functions f1 (t), f2 (t), f3 (t) on a common domain say, S uniquely
define a vector function f(t) = f1 (t)e1 +f2 (t)e2 +f3 (t)e3 on S whose components
with respect (e1 , e2 , e3 ) are f1 , f2 , f3
Vector functions will be used to define curves. Let x = f(t);then as t varies,
the point x will trace out a [Link] equation x = f(t) or componentwise, the
three scalar equations x = f1 (t), x = f2 (t), x = f3 (t) will be called a paramet-
ric representation of the curve and the variable t will be the parameter. Note
that equation x = f(t) or r = r(t) can be written in terms of its components
x = f1 (t)e1 + f2 (t)e2 + f3 (t)e3 or r = x(t)e1 + y(t)e2 + z(t)e3 . (Take note of
the notation so that there is no confusion!)
In conclusion, a curve in R3 (3 − D) is a continuous mapping f : I −→ R3
where I is some interval on the real line R. Because the range of f is R3 ,
f ’s output has 3 coordinates. We then write for t ∈ I, a parametrization for
f :f (t) = (f1 (t), f2 (t), f3 (t)), where fi ’s are themselves functions: fi : I −→ R.
Example 1.4. The equation x = (a cos t)e1 +(a sin t)e2 ) or x = (a cos t, a sin t),
a > 0, 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π is a parametric representation of the circle of radius a about
the origin. As t increases through the interval 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π, the circle is traced
in a counterclockwise direction as shown below:
For most part we shall assume that our functions are defined on intervals I.
These consist of the finite closed and open intervals a ≤ t ≤ b and a < t < b,
the finite half-open intervals a ≤ t < b and a < t ≤ b and the infinite intervals
such as −∞ < t < ∞, a ≤ t < ∞, −∞ < t < a e.t.c
Excercise 1.5. A point P has position vector OP = a(cos θ, 0, sin θ) relative
to the rectangular cartesian axes Oxyz. Find the locus of P as θ varies and a
remains constant.
Assignment:Review differentiation and the rules of differentiation of func-
tions for the same rules also apply in the differentiation of vector functions.
Excercise 1.6. Find the values of λ for which the vector A = (cos λx, sin λx, 0)
2
satisfies the differential equation ddxA2 = −9A
2
1.1 Types of curves
1.1.1 Smooth curves
The curve with parametric equation x = x(t), t0 ≤ t ≤ t1 is said to be smooth if
0
at ALL points in the interval t0 ≤ t ≤ t1 , T̂ (= |xx0 (t
(t0 )
) exists and is continuous.
0 )|
Precisely, smoothness may be taken to mean that the curve does not undergo a
sudden change in direction at any point.
1.1.2 Piecewise smooth curves
Let t0 < t1 < t2 < ... < tn−1 < tn . The curve with parametric equation
r = r(t); t0 ≤ t ≤ tn is said to be piecewise smooth if: r(t) is continuous in the
interval t0 ≤ t ≤ tn and the unit tangent vector T̂ is continuous in the interval
t0 ≤ t ≤ tn except at the points t1 , t2 < ... < tn−1 . Thus a piecewise smooth
curve consists of finite number of smooth curves linked end to end.
1.1.3 Simple open curves
A piecewise smooth curve r = r(t); t0 ≤ t ≤ tn is said to be simple and open if
each point on it corresponds to just one value of t. Thus a simple open curve
does not cross or meet itself at any point.
1.1.4 Simple closed curves
A piecewise smooth curve with parametric equation r = r(t); t0 ≤ t ≤ tn is said
to be simple and closed if its end points (corresponding to t = t0 and t = tn )
coincide and each other point corresponds to just one value of t.
An elementary example of a simple closed curve is the unit circle in the xy-
plane, with the parametric equation r = (cos t, sin t, 0); 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π. Also note
that of the range of t were 0 ≤ t ≤ 4π, the circle would be described twice as t
covers the range, so it would no longer be a simple curve!!!!
Excercise 1.7. Consider the following examples of curves and classify them
(and state whether they are simple or not)
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4