Chapter 5

Integrals
Area and Estimating with Finite Sums:

 Formulas for calculating areas of polygons such as squares, rectangles, triangles,

As the number of sides increases 𝑛→∞, the polygon’s area approaches to true area

𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝐴(𝑛)
→

For a circle of 𝑟 = 1

𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝐴(𝑛) = 𝜋
→

The Area Problem:

Given a function 𝑓 that is continuous and non-negative on an interval [𝑎, 𝑏], find the area
between the graph of 𝑓 and the interval [𝑎. 𝑏] on 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠.

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Rectangle method for finding areas:

1. Divide the interval [𝑎, 𝑏] into 𝑛 equal subintervals, and over each subinterval construct a
rectangle that extends from 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 to any point on the curve 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) that is above the
subinterval.

2. For each 𝑛, the total area of rectangles can be viewed as an approximation to the area
under the curve over interval [𝑎, 𝑏].
3. As we increase the number of approximations 𝑛, the approximated area will get closer
and closer to exact area as a limit.
𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝐴(𝑛)
→

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 𝑛=5

Example:

Find the area of between 𝒙 − 𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒔 and 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝟏 − 𝒙𝟐 by using rectangular method.

Solution:

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To estimate the area of shaded region in above figure, we can approximate it by dividing the
interval [𝑎, 𝑏] into 𝑛 equal parts.
𝑏−𝑎
Δ𝑥 =
𝑛
For 𝒏 = 𝟐
1−0 1
Δ𝑥 = =
2 2

𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑛 = 2
1−0 1
𝛥𝑥 = =
2 2

Then the points are 0, , 1

Calculate 𝑓(𝑥) at these points

𝑓(0) = 1
1 1
𝑓 = 1 − = 0.75
2 4
𝑓(1) = 1 − 1 = 0

Then the area can be calculated as

𝐴 = 𝑓(𝑥 ) + 𝑓(𝑥 ) + ⋯ + 𝑓(𝑥 ) 𝛥𝑥

𝐴 = 𝑓(𝑥 ) + 𝑓(𝑥 ) 𝛥𝑥

𝐴 = (1 + 0.75)0.5 = 0.875

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Exact area is 0.6667

For 𝒏 = 𝟒
1−0 1
Δ𝑥 = =
4 4

𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑛 = 4
1−0 1
𝛥𝑥 = =
4 4

Then the points are 0, , ,

Calculate 𝑓(𝑥) at these points

𝑓(0) = 1
1 1
𝑓 =1− = 0.9375
4 16
1
𝑓 = 0.75
2
3 9
𝑓 =1− = 0.4375
4 16
Then the area can be calculated as

𝐴 = 𝑓(𝑥 ) + 𝑓(𝑥 ) + ⋯ + 𝑓(𝑥 ) Δ𝑥

𝐴 = 𝑓(𝑥 ) + 𝑓(𝑥 ) + 𝑓(𝑥 ) + 𝑓(𝑥 ) Δ𝑥

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 𝐴 = (1 + 0.9375 + 0.75 + 0.4375)0.25 = 0.78125

Exact area is 0.6667

Estimate the average value of 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒙 on the interval [𝟎, 𝝅].

Solution:

For 𝑛 = 8
𝜋−0 𝜋
Δ𝑥 = =
8 8

The points are 0, , , , , , ,

𝜋 𝜋 3𝜋 𝜋 5𝜋 3𝜋 7𝜋
0, , , , , , ,
8 4 8 2 8 4 8
𝒙𝒏 𝒇(𝒙𝒏 )
0 0
𝜋/8 0.38
𝜋/4 0.71
3𝜋/8 0.92
𝜋/2 1
5𝜋/8 0.92
3𝜋/4 0.71
7𝜋/8 0.38
5.02
Then area is
(5.02)𝜋
𝐴 = = 1.97035
8

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For average value, divide area by the length of interval
1.97035
𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 = = 0.6275
𝜋
The exact value is

𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑎𝑡 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 = 0.6366

Sigma Notation and Limits of Finite Sums:

Sigma notation enables us to write the sum of many terms in compact form

The sum of the squares of 1 through 11

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Example:

Express the sum 𝟏 + 𝟑 + 𝟓 + 𝟕 + 𝟗 in sigma notation.

Solution:

Algebra Rules for Finite Sums:

Example:

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The sum of first 𝑛 integers

Riemannian Sum with Equal Width Subintervals:

Riemannian sum is a way to approximate area under the curve

Example:

Find the area 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝟏 − 𝒙𝟐 in the interval [𝟎, 𝟏] by using summation.

Solution:

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 𝒃−𝒂
𝚫𝒙 =
𝒏

The points can be written as 0, , , , … , ,

Then the area can be calculated as

𝑘 1 𝑘 1
𝐴 = 𝑓 . = 1− .
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛

1 𝑘
= −
𝑛 𝑛

1 𝑘
= −
𝑛 𝑛

1 1 𝑛(𝑛 + 1)(2𝑛 + 1)
= 𝑛. −
𝑛 𝑛 6

2𝑛 + 3𝑛 + 𝑛
= 1−
6𝑛

2𝑛 + 3𝑛 + 𝑛 2 1
𝐴 = lim 1 − = 1− =
→ 6𝑛 3 3

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The Definite Integrals:

If a function is continuous on a interval [𝑎, 𝑏], then 𝑓 is integrable over [𝑎, 𝑏], then the net area 𝐴
between the graph of 𝑓 and the interval [𝑎, 𝑏] is

Properties of Definite Integrals:

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Average Value or Mean:

If 𝑓 is integrable on [𝑎, 𝑏], then its average value on [𝑎, 𝑏], which is also called mean is

1
𝑎𝑣(𝑓) = 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
𝑏−𝑎

Example:

Find the average value of 𝒇(𝒙) = √𝟒 − 𝒙𝟐 on [−𝟐, 𝟐].

Solution:

As the area of semicircle is

1 1
𝐴 = . 𝜋𝑟 = . 𝜋(2) = 2𝜋
2 2

1 1 𝜋
𝑎𝑣(𝑓) = 4 − 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = (2𝜋) =
2 − (−2) 4 2

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 The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

Mean Value Theorem for Definite Integrals:

If 𝑓 is continuous on [𝑎, 𝑏], then at some point 𝑐 in [𝑎, 𝑏]

1
𝑓(𝑐) = 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
𝑏−𝑎

Fundamental Theorem of Calculus (Part 1):

If 𝑓 is continuous on [𝑎, 𝑏], then 𝐹(𝑥) = ∫ 𝑓(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 is continuous on [𝑎, 𝑏] and differentiable on
(𝑎, 𝑏) and its derivative is 𝑓(𝑥):

𝑑
𝐹 (𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑑𝑥

Example:

𝒅𝒚
Use fundamental theorem of calculus to find
𝒅𝒙

Solution:

𝑦= (𝑡 + 1) 𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑦 𝑑
= (𝑡 + 1) 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑥 + 1
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Solution:

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 𝑦= 3𝑡𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑦 𝑑
= 3𝑡𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑
=− 3𝑡𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = −3𝑥𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥
𝑑𝑥

Solution:

𝑦= 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑢 = 𝑥 𝑑𝑢 = 2𝑥𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦 𝑑
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑 𝑑𝑢
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑥

𝑑
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡 2𝑥
𝑑𝑢

= 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑢. 2𝑥

𝑑𝑦
= 2𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥
𝑑𝑥

Solution:

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 1
𝑦= 𝑑𝑡
2+𝑡

𝑑𝑦 𝑑 1
=− 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2+𝑡

𝑑𝑢
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑢 = 1 + 3𝑥 = 6𝑥
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦 𝑑 1 𝑑𝑢
=− 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑢 2+𝑡 𝑑𝑥

𝑑 1
=− 𝑑𝑡 6𝑥
𝑑𝑢 2+𝑡

1
=− 6𝑥
2+𝑢

𝑑𝑦 1
=− 6𝑥
𝑑𝑥 3 + 3𝑥

2𝑥
=−
1+𝑥

Fundamental Theorem of Calculus (Part 2):

If 𝑓 is continuous on [𝑎, 𝑏], and 𝐹(𝑥) is any antiderivative of 𝑓 𝑜𝑛 [𝑎, 𝑏] then:

𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝐹(𝑏) − 𝐹(𝑎)

Example:

Evaluate

Solution:

cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥| = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜋 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛0 = 0

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Solution:

𝜋
𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑥𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑥| = 𝑠𝑒𝑐0 − sec − = 1 − √2
4

Solution:

3 4 3 4
√𝑥 − 𝑑𝑥 = √𝑥𝑑𝑥 − 𝑑𝑥
2 𝑥 2 𝑥

3𝑥 𝑥
= −4
2 3 (−1)
2

=4

The Net Change Theorem:

The net change in a differentiable function 𝐹(𝑥) over an interval 𝑎 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑏 is the integral of its
rate of change

𝐹(𝑏) − 𝐹(𝑎) = 𝐹 (𝑥) 𝑑𝑥

Example:

Consider a heavy rock blown straight blown straight up from the ground by a dynamite
blast. The velocity of the rock at any time 𝒕 during its motion is given as 𝒗(𝒕) = 𝟏𝟔𝟎 −
𝟑𝟐𝒕 𝒇𝒕/𝒔𝒆𝒄.

a. Find the displacement of the rock during the tome period 𝟎 ≤ 𝒕 ≤ 𝟖.

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Solution:

b. Find the total distance traveled during this time period.

160 − 32𝑡 = 0

160 = 32𝑡

160
𝑡= = 5 𝑠𝑒𝑐
32

At 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 5 the rock is going upward and 5 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 8 the rock is going downward

Example:

Figure shows the graph of 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒙𝟐 − 𝟒 and its mirror image 𝒈(𝒙) = 𝟒 − 𝒙𝟐 reflected
along the x-axis. For each function, compute

a. the definite integral over the interval [−𝟐, 𝟐] and

Solution:

𝑥 − 4 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 − 4 𝑑𝑥

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 𝑥 1 16
= − 4𝑥| = (8 + 8) − 4(2 + 2) = − 16
3 3 3
32
=−
3

4 − 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 4 1 𝑑𝑥 − 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑥 1 16
= 4𝑥| − = 4(2 + 2) − (8 + 8) = 16 −
3 3 3
32
=
3

b. the area between the graph and𝒙 −axis over [−𝟐, 𝟐]

In both the cases area between 𝑥-axis and the curves is

square units.

Example:

Given figure shows the graph of 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒙

a. the definite integral of 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒙 over

Solution:

𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = −𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥| = −(𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜋 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠0)

= −(1 − 1) = 0

b. the area between the graph of 𝒇(𝒙) and 𝒙 − 𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒔 over [𝟎, 𝟐𝝅].

Solution:

𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = −𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥| = −(𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜋 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠0) = −(−1 − 1) = 2

233
 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = −𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥| = −(𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜋 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜋) = −(1 + 1) = −2

𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = |2| + |−2| = 4

Example:

Find the area of region between 𝒙 − 𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒔 and the graph of 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒙𝟑 − 𝒙𝟐 − 𝟐𝒙, −𝟏 ≤ 𝒙 ≤
𝟐.

Solution:

𝑥 − 𝑥 − 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑥 − 𝑥 − 2𝑥 = 0

𝑥(𝑥 − 𝑥 − 2) = 0

𝑥(𝑥 − 2𝑥 + 𝑥 − 2) = 0

𝑥 𝑥(𝑥 − 2) + 1(𝑥 − 2) = 0

𝑥 = 0, −1,2

𝑥 − 𝑥 − 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 − 𝑥 − 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑥 − 𝑥 − 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥

37
=
12

234
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 Indefinite Integral and the Substitution Method

Example 1:

Solution:

Example 2:

Solution:

239
Substitution rule:

If 𝑔(𝑥) is differentiable function whose range is an interval 𝐼, and 𝑓 is continuous on 𝐼, then

𝑓 𝑔(𝑥) . 𝑔 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑢) 𝑑𝑢

Example 1:

Solution:

240
Example 2:

Solution:

Example 3:

Find ∫ 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒙𝟑 𝒙𝟐 𝒅𝒙

Solution:

241
Example 4:

Solution:

Let 𝑢 = 2𝑥 + 1, 𝑑𝑢 = 2𝑑𝑥

𝑢−1
𝑥√2𝑥 + 1 = . √𝑢
2

Example 5:

242
Example 6:

Solution:

Method 1:

243
Method 2:

244
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-

247
 Definite Integral Substitutions and the Area Between Curves

Substitution in Definite Integrals:

If 𝑔′ is continuous on the interval [𝑎, 𝑏] and 𝑓 is continuous on the range of 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑢, then

Example 1:

Solution:

Method 1:

Method 2:

248
Example 2:

Solution:

Solution:

249
Definite Integrals of Symmetric Functions:

Theorem:

Let 𝑓 be continuous on the symmetric interval [−𝑎, 𝑎]

a) If 𝑓 is even, then ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 2 ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥

b) If 𝑓 is odd, then ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 0

Example 3:

Solution:

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 − 4𝑥 + 6

𝑓(−𝑥) = (−𝑥) − 4(−𝑥) + 6

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 𝑓(−𝑥) = 𝑥 − 4𝑥 + 6 = 𝑓(𝑥)

Since 𝑓(𝑥) is an even function then

Area Between Curves:

If 𝑓 and 𝑔 are continuous with 𝑓(𝑥) ≥ 𝑔(𝑥) throughout [𝑎, 𝑏], then the area of the region between
the curves 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑦 = 𝑔(𝑥) from 𝑎 to 𝑏 is the integral of (𝑓 − 𝑔) from 𝑎 to 𝑏:

Example 1:

Find the area of the region enclosed by the parabola 𝒚 = 𝟐 − 𝒙𝟐 and the line 𝒚 = −𝒙.

Solution:

Step 1: Sketch the curves

251
Step 2: Find the limits of integration

The values of 𝑥 in the shaded region changes from −1 to 2.

Step 3: Write the integral with limits and evaluate it

Example 2:

Find the area of region in the first quadrant that is bounded above by 𝒚 = √𝒙 and below by
the 𝒙 − 𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒔 and the line 𝒚 = 𝒙 − 𝟐.

252
Solution:

Step 1: Sketch the region

Step 2: Here the region is bounded below by two lines 𝑥 −axis and 𝑦 = 𝑥 − 2. So we have two
different regions and the integral will be subdivided into two intervals.

Region 𝐴: Bounded above by 𝑦 = √𝑥 and bounded below by 𝑦 = 0

√𝑥 = 0

𝑥=0

𝑥 0 1 2
𝑦 = √𝑥 0 1 1.4142

𝑥 0 1 2 3
𝑦 =𝑥−2 −2 −1 0 1
The limits for regions A are 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 2.

Region 𝐵: Bounded above by 𝑦 = √𝑥 and below by 𝑦 = 𝑥 − 2

253
The limits for regions B are 2 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 4.

Step 3:

Total area is given as

Example 3:

Find the area of region in the first quadrant that is bounded above by 𝒚 = √𝒙 and below by
the 𝒙 − 𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒔 and the line 𝒚 = 𝒙 − 𝟐 by integrating with respect to 𝒚.

Solution:

Step 1: Sketch the curves

254
Step 2: Find the limits of integration

𝑦 = √𝑥 ⇒ 𝑥 = 𝑦

𝑦 =𝑥−2

𝑦+2 = 𝑥

Comparing the values of 𝑥

2+𝑦 = 𝑦

𝑦 −𝑦−2=0

(𝑦 − 2)(𝑦 + 1) = 0

𝑦 = 2, −1

The values of 𝑦 in the shaded region changes from −1 to 2. Since 𝑦 = −1 lies below the first
quadrant so the region is 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 2

Step 3: Write the integral with limits and evaluate it

255
Example 7:

Find the area of the region bounded below by the line 𝒚 = 𝟐 − 𝒙 and above the curve 𝒚 =
√𝟐𝒙 − 𝒙𝟐 .

Solution:

Step 1:

Step 2:

2−𝑥 = 2𝑥 − 𝑥

4 + 𝑥 − 4𝑥 = 2𝑥 − 𝑥

2𝑥 − 6𝑥 + 4 = 0

2𝑥 − 2𝑥 − 4𝑥 + 4 = 0

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 2𝑥(𝑥 − 2) − 4(𝑥 − 1) = 0

(2𝑥 − 4)(𝑥 − 1) = 0

𝑥 = 1, 2

Step 3:

Integration not possible.

Method 2: Integrating along 𝑦 −axis

𝑦 = 2 − 𝑥, 𝑦 = 2𝑥 − 𝑥

𝑥 = 2 − 𝑦, 𝑦 = 2𝑥 − 𝑥

−𝑦 = 𝑥 − 2𝑥

1 − 𝑦 = 𝑥 − 2𝑥 + 1

1 − 𝑦 = (𝑥 − 1)

1−𝑦 =𝑥−1

1+ 1−𝑦 = 𝑥

Evaluating

1+ 1−𝑦 = 2−𝑦

1−𝑦 =1−𝑦

1 − 𝑦 = 1 + 𝑦 − 2𝑦

2𝑦 − 2𝑦 = 0

2𝑦(𝑦 − 1) = 0

𝑦 = 0, 1

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