Lecture Notes on Power Electronics

Power Converter Modulation, Control, and Simulation

Course: Mechatronics Engineering - 3rd Year

Institution: Dar es Salaam Maritime Institute

Contents
1 Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) for DC-DC Converters 2
1.1 Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) Technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2 Application & Calculation: DC-DC Buck Converter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2.1 Key Design Formulas (Continuous Conduction Mode) . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2.2 Sample Calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3 LTspice Simulation: Buck Converter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

2 Space Vector Modulation (SVM) 5

2.1 Space Vector Modulation Technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.2 Sample Calculation for SVM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

3 Power Device Drivers 6

4 Simulation of AC Converters 6
4.1 AC-DC: Single-Phase Fully-Controlled Rectifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
4.1.1 Mathematical Model & Calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
4.1.2 LTspice Simulation Guide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
4.2 AC-AC: Single-Phase Voltage Controller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
4.2.1 Mathematical Model & Calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
4.2.2 LTspice Simulation Guide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

1
Introduction to Modulation Techniques
In power electronics, modulation is the process of controlling high-frequency switches (like
MOSFETs or IGBTs) to convert electrical power from one form to another efficiently. By
carefully controlling the timing of these switches, we can synthesize a desired output voltage
or current waveform from a given input source. There are several modulation strategies, each
with specific advantages and applications.

• Pulse Width Modulation (PWM): Controls the average power delivered to a load
by varying the width (duty cycle) of pulses while keeping the frequency constant.

• Space Vector Modulation (SVM): An advanced digital technique for three-phase

inverters that treats the inverter as a single entity to optimize DC voltage utilization and
reduce harmonic distortion.

• Pulse Frequency Modulation (PFM): Controls power by varying the frequency of

pulses while keeping the pulse width constant. It is particularly efficient under light load
conditions.

• Pulse Density Modulation (PDM): Represents an analog signal by varying the den-
sity of pulses over time. It is often used in digital audio and some specialized power
applications.

• Selective Harmonic Elimination (SHE): A specialized PWM method where switch-

ing angles are calculated precisely to eliminate specific, undesirable low-order harmonics
from the output voltage waveform.

• Delta-Sigma (∆Σ) Modulation: An oversampling method that encodes an analog

signal into a low bit-depth digital signal at a very high frequency, primarily used in
high-resolution data converters.

While many techniques exist, these notes will focus on Pulse Width Modulation (PWM)
and Space Vector Modulation (SVM), as they are the most fundamental and widely used
methods in mechatronic systems, from DC motor control to three-phase AC drives.

1 Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) for DC-DC Con-

verters
1.1 Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) Technique
Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) is a technique used to control the average power delivered to
a load by switching a digital signal on and off at a high frequency. The key parameter is the
duty cycle (D), which is the fraction of time the signal is in the ”ON” state (Ton ) within one
period (Ts ). [2]
Ton
D= (1)
Ts
By varying the duty cycle from 0 to 1 (0% to 100%), the average output voltage (Vout ) can
be linearly controlled from a fixed input voltage (Vin ). This relationship is the foundation of
many DC-DC converters.

Vout = D · Vin (2)

2
1.2 Application & Calculation: DC-DC Buck Converter
The buck converter is a common circuit that uses PWM to step down a DC voltage. It consists
of a switch (MOSFET), a diode, an inductor (L), and a capacitor (C).

1.2.1 Key Design Formulas (Continuous Conduction Mode)

• Inductor Current Ripple (∆IL ): The peak-to-peak variation in the inductor current.
It is typically designed to be 20% to 40% of the maximum load current.
Vout (1 − D)
∆IL = (3)
L · fsw

• Minimum Inductance (Lmin ): The inductance required to achieve the desired current
ripple.
Vout (1 − D)
Lmin = (4)
∆IL,max · fsw

• Output Voltage Ripple (∆Vout ): The small fluctuation in the output voltage, caused
by the charging and discharging of the output capacitor.
∆IL
∆Vout ≈ (5)
8 · C · fsw

1.2.2 Sample Calculation

Design Specifications:

• Input Voltage, Vin : 24 V

• Output Voltage, Vout : 5 V

• Maximum Output Current, Iout : 3 A

• Switching Frequency, fsw : 200 kHz

• Target Inductor Current Ripple, ∆IL : 30% of Iout (0.9 A)

• Target Output Voltage Ripple, ∆Vout : ¡ 50 mV

Step 1: Calculate Duty Cycle

Vout 5V
D= = ≈ 0.2083
Vin 24 V
Step 2: Calculate Required Inductance
Vout (1 − D) 5 V · (1 − 0.2083)
L= = ≈ 21.99 µH
∆IL · fsw 0.9 A · 200, 000 Hz
A standard value of 22 µH is selected.
Step 3: Calculate Required Capacitance
∆IL 0.9 A
Cmin = = = 11.25 µF
8 · ∆Vout · fsw 8 · 0.050 V · 200, 000 Hz
A standard value of 22 µF is selected.

3
1.3 LTspice Simulation: Buck Converter
1. Circuit Setup:

• Assemble a buck converter using a voltage source (24V), an nmos transistor, a diode,
an ind (22uH), a cap (22uF), and a res (1.67Ω).

2. PWM Generation (PULSE Source):

• Add a second voltage source to drive the MOSFET gate. Right-click it and select PULSE.

• Set the parameters:

Vinitial: 0
Von: 10
Trise: 10n
Tfall: 10n
Ton: 1.04u
Tperiod: 5u

3. Simulation and Analysis:

• Add a transient simulation command: .tran 5ms.

• Run the simulation. Plot the output voltage V(out) and inductor current I(L1).

• Verify that the average output voltage is ˜5V and that the measured voltage and current
ripples match the calculations.

4
2 Space Vector Modulation (SVM)
2.1 Space Vector Modulation Technique
Space Vector Modulation (SVM) is an advanced digital modulation technique for three-phase
inverters, commonly used in motor drives. Instead of controlling each phase independently,
SVM treats the inverter’s six switches as a single unit. [4]
A three-phase inverter has 23 = 8 possible switching states. These states produce six
”active” voltage vectors and two ”zero” voltage vectors. [4] The goal of SVM is to create any
desired voltage vector (the reference vector, V⃗ref ) by averaging the two adjacent active vectors
and the zero vectors over a switching period (Ts ). [5] This is done by calculating the correct
amount of time—or dwell time—to apply each of the three vectors.
SVM provides better utilization of the DC bus voltage (about 15% more than standard
sinusoidal PWM) and produces lower harmonic distortion. [16]

2.2 Sample Calculation for SVM

Design Specifications:

• DC Link Voltage, Vdc : 400 V

• Switching Frequency, fsw : 10 kHz (Ts = 100 µs)

• Desired Reference Vector, V⃗ref : Magnitude |V⃗ref | = 200 V, Angle θ = 45◦ .

Step 1: Sector Identification

The angle θ = 45◦ is in Sector 1 (between 0◦ and 60◦ ). The adjacent active vectors are V1 and
V2.
Step 2: Dwell Time Calculation
The dwell times for the two active vectors (T1 , T2 ) and the zero vector (T0 ) are calculated as
follows: [5, 17]
√
3 · Ts · |V⃗ref |
T1 = sin(60◦ − θ)
Vdc
√
3 · 100µs · 200V
= sin(15◦ ) ≈ 22.41 µs (6)
√ 400V
3 · Ts · |V⃗ref |
T2 = sin(θ)
Vdc
√
3 · 100µs · 200V
= sin(45◦ ) ≈ 61.23 µs (7)
400V
T0 = Ts − T1 − T2
= 100µs − 22.41µs − 61.23µs = 16.36 µs (8)

These times are then used by a microcontroller to generate the PWM signals for the inverter.

5
3 Power Device Drivers
A gate driver is a power amplifier that acts as the interface between a low-power control
signal (from a microcontroller) and the high-power gate of a MOSFET or IGBT. [18, 19] A
microcontroller’s I/O pin cannot supply the high peak current needed to charge and discharge
the switch’s gate capacitance quickly. A dedicated driver is required for fast, efficient switching,
which minimizes power losses. [20]

• Low-Side Driver: Used when the switch’s source/emitter is connected to ground. The
driver is simple and ground-referenced. [18, 21]

• High-Side Driver: Used when the switch’s source/emitter is connected to a floating

node (not ground). This requires a floating drive voltage, often created using a bootstrap
circuit. [18, 21]

• Half-Bridge Driver: An IC that combines a high-side and a low-side driver for con-
trolling bridge topologies. These often include critical protection features like dead-time
insertion and under-voltage lockout (UVLO). [22, 23, 24]

• Isolated Driver: In high-voltage systems, galvanic isolation is used to protect the low-
voltage controller and ensure operator safety. [25]

4 Simulation of AC Converters
4.1 AC-DC: Single-Phase Fully-Controlled Rectifier
This converter uses four thyristors (SCRs) to convert AC to a controllable DC voltage. Control
is achieved by delaying the gate trigger pulse by a firing angle (α).

4.1.1 Mathematical Model & Calculation

The average DC output voltage (Vavg ) for a continuous current is given by:

2Vm
Vavg = cos(α) (9)
π
where Vm is the peak AC voltage. [26, 27]
Sample Calculation:

• Given: Vs = 230 V RMS (so Vm ≈ 325.27 V). Desired Vavg = 150 V.

• Find α:
2 · 325.27
150 = cos(α)
π
150 · π
cos(α) = ≈ 0.7244
2 · 325.27
α = arccos(0.7244) ≈ 43.58◦

6
4.1.2 LTspice Simulation Guide
1. Circuit Setup:

• Build a full-bridge with four SCR components and an AC SIN voltage source. Use an R-L
load (e.g., 10Ω, 100mH).

2. Gate Pulse Generation:

• Use four PULSE sources. For a 50Hz supply (T = 20ms) and α = 43.58◦ , the time delay
is tdelay ≈ 2.42 ms.

• Gate 1 & 2: PULSE(0 5 {2.42m} 10n 10n 10u 20m)

• Gate 3 & 4: Fired at π + α. Delay is 10ms + 2.42ms = 12.42 ms. PULSE(0 5 {12.42m}
10n 10n 10u 20m)

3. Analysis:

• Run a .tran 100ms simulation.

• Plot the output voltage V(out) and use Ctrl+Click on its label to measure the average
value, verifying it matches the 150 V target.

4.2 AC-AC: Single-Phase Voltage Controller

This circuit uses two anti-parallel thyristors (or a TRIAC) to control the RMS voltage delivered
to a load. [28, 29]

4.2.1 Mathematical Model & Calculation

The RMS output voltage (Vo,rms ) for a resistive load is:
r
α sin(2α)
Vo,rms = Vs,rms 1 − + (10)
π 2π
[30]
Sample Calculation:

• Given: Vs = 120 V RMS, Load R = 15Ω, Power P = 500 W.

• Step 1: Find Required Vo,rms

√ √
Vo,rms = P ·R= 500 · 15 ≈ 86.6 V

• Step 2: Solve for α r

α sin(2α)
86.6 = 120 1− +
π 2π
◦
Solving this transcendental equation gives α ≈ 63 .

7
4.2.2 LTspice Simulation Guide
1. Circuit Setup:

• Place a SIN voltage source, two SCR components in anti-parallel, and a load resistor (15Ω).

2. Gate Pulse Generation:

• For a 60Hz supply (T = 16.67ms) and α = 63◦ , the delay is tdelay ≈ 2.92 ms.

• Gate 1: PULSE(0 5 {2.92m} 10n 10n 10u 16.67m)

• Gate 2: Fired at π +α. Delay is 16.67/2 ms+2.92 ms ≈ 11.25 ms. PULSE(0 5 {11.25m}
10n 10n 10u 16.67m)

3. Analysis:

• Run a .tran 100ms simulation.

• Plot the output voltage and use Ctrl+Click on its label to measure the RMS value,
verifying it is close to the 86.6 V target.