sustainability

Review
Review of Recent Developments in Microgrid Energy
Management Strategies
Md Shafiullah 1, * , Akib Mostabe Refat 2 , Md Ershadul Haque 3 , Dewan Mabrur Hasan Chowdhury 4 ,
Md Sanower Hossain 5 , Abdullah G. Alharbi 6 , Md Shafiul Alam 7 , Amjad Ali 1 and Shorab Hossain 3

1 Interdisciplinary Research Center for Renewable Energy and Power Systems, King Fahd University of
Petroleum & Minerals, Dhahran 31261, Saudi Arabia
2 Department of Electrical & Electronics Engineering, American International University-Bangladesh,
Dhaka 1229, Bangladesh
3 Mechanical Engineering Department, King Fahd University of Petroleum & Minerals,
Dhahran 31261, Saudi Arabia
4 Department of Electrical & Electronic Engineering, The International University of Scholars,
Dhaka 1212, Bangladesh
5 Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Texas at Dallas, Richardson, TX 75080, USA
6 Department of Electrical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Jouf University, Sakaka 42421, Saudi Arabia
7 Applied Research Center for Environment & Marine Studies, King Fahd University of Petroleum & Minerals,
Dhahran 31261, Saudi Arabia
* Correspondence: shafiullah@[Link]

Abstract: The grid integration of microgrids and the selection of energy management systems (EMS)
based on robustness and energy efficiency in terms of generation, storage, and distribution are
becoming more challenging with rising electrical power demand. The problems regarding exploring
renewable energy resources with efficient and durable energy storage systems demand side manage-
Citation: Shafiullah, M.; Refat, A.M.;
ment and sustainable solutions to microgrid development to maintain the power system’s stability
Haque, M.E.; Chowdhury, D.M.H.;
Hossain, M.S.; Alharbi, A.G.; Alam,
and security. This article mainly focuses on the overview of the recent developments of microgrid
M.S.; Ali, A.; Hossain, S. Review of EMS within the control strategies and the implementation challenges of the microgrid. First, it pro-
Recent Developments in Microgrid vides energy management strategies for the major microgrid components, including load, generation,
Energy Management Strategies. and energy storage systems. Then, it presents the different optimization approaches employed for
Sustainability 2022, 14, 14794. microgrid energy management, such as classical, metaheuristic, and artificial intelligence. Moreover,
[Link] this article sheds light on the major implementation challenges of microgrids. Overall, this article
su142214794 provides interactive guidelines for researchers to assist them in deciding on their future research.
Academic Editor: Ashwin
M. Khambadkone Keywords: artificial intelligence; challenges; energy management schemes; computational intelligence;
genetic algorithm; metaheuristic algorithms; optimization; overview; power systems; renewable
Received: 24 September 2022
energy resources; smart grid; review
Accepted: 4 November 2022
Published: 9 November 2022

Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral

with regard to jurisdictional claims in 1. Introduction
published maps and institutional affil-
Through numerous environmental regulations and efforts, the widespread promotion
iations.
of green energy and de-carbonization has stimulated research into novel solutions. In
this context, complementary technologies, and renewable energy resources (RER) have
drawn significant interest worldwide. An increase in the utilization of RER throughout
Copyright: © 2022 by the authors.
the electricity networks might facilitate their decentralization [1–4]. A possible method of
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. linking RER to the distribution grids is utilizing the microgrids (MGs) that are made up
This article is an open access article of an accretion of loads, distributed generation (DG) units, and energy storage systems
distributed under the terms and (ESS) [5]. The MGs provide numerous technological [6,7], social [8,9], economic [10], and
conditions of the Creative Commons environmental [11–13] advantages. They assist in bringing electricity to remote areas,
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// lessen blackouts, and boost the system’s energy effectiveness. Additionally, the MGs lowers
[Link]/licenses/by/ system losses and offer auxiliary services to maintain the efficient operation of the energy
4.0/). networks. A microgrid is a self-sufficient energy system that serves a discrete geographic

Sustainability 2022, 14, 14794. [Link] [Link]

 environmental [11–13] advantages. They assist in bringing electricity to remote areas,
lessen blackouts, and boost the system’s energy effectiveness. Additionally, the MGs low-
ers system losses and offer auxiliary services to maintain the efficient operation of the
Sustainability 2022, 14, 14794 2 of 30
energy networks. A microgrid is a self-sufficient energy system that serves a discrete ge-
ographic footprint, such as a college campus, hospital complex, business center, or neigh-
borhood [14]. A smart MG is a solution that maintains the electricity grid sustainability
footprint,
by assuringsuchanasintelligent
a college campus, hospital complex,
and dependable business
power supply center,
[15]. or neighborhood
In general, the MG is[14].
a sin-
Agle
smart MG is a solution that maintains the electricity grid sustainability
controllable local power network with distributed energy sources (solar Photovoltaicsby assuring an
intelligent and dependable power supply [15]. In general, the MG is a single controllable
(PV), wind energy, diesel generator, fuel cell, wave energy, etc.), ESS, controllable distrib-
local
uted power network with
loads (households, distributedindustrial,
commercial, energy sources (solar
etc.), and Photovoltaics
advanced energy (PV), wind
management
energy, diesel generator, fuel cell, wave energy, etc.), ESS, controllable distributed
systems (EMSs) as shown in Figure 1. It can be operated alone or in connection with the loads
(households, commercial, industrial, etc.), and advanced energy management systems
utility grid. A few popular definitions are given below:
(EMSs) as shown in Figure 1. It can be operated alone or in connection with the utility grid.
• The U.S. Department of Energy [16]: “a group of interconnected loads and distrib-
A few popular definitions are given below:
uted energy resources within clearly defined electrical boundaries that acts as a sin-
• The
gle U.S. Department
controllable of Energy
entity [16]: “a
with respect to group of interconnected
the grid. A microgrid can loads and distributed
connect and discon-
energy resources within clearly defined electrical boundaries that
nect from the grid to enable it to operate in both grid-connected or island-mode.”acts as a single
• controllable entity with respect to the grid. A microgrid can connect
International Electrotechnical Commission [17]: “the electrical systems with loadsand disconnect
from the grid to enable it to operate in both grid-connected or island-mode.”
and distributed energy resources at low or medium voltage level. According to IEC
• International Electrotechnical Commission [17]: “the electrical systems with loads
62898-1, microgrids are classified into isolated microgrids and non-isolated mi-
and distributed energy resources at low or medium voltage level. According to IEC
crogrids. Isolated microgrids have no electrical connection to larger electric power
62898-1, microgrids are classified into isolated microgrids and non-isolated microgrids.
systems.”
Isolated microgrids have no electrical connection to larger electric power systems.”
• Energy Networks Australia [18]: “an autonomous or local energy grid, with the con-
• Energy Networks Australia [18]: “an autonomous or local energy grid, with the control
trol capability
capability to operate
to operate separately
separately to the to the traditional
traditional grid.” grid.”
However, the stand-alone or isolated MG, sometimes called an “island grid,” only
However, the stand-alone or isolated MG, sometimes called an “island grid,” only
operates off the grid and is connected to the wider electric networks. They are usually
operates off the grid and is connected to the wider electric networks. They are usually
designed for geographical islands or rural electrification [NO_PRINTED_FORM]. It is
designed for geographical islands or rural electrification [NO_PRINTED_FORM]. It is
worth noting that the grid-connected MG systems are mostly considered in this article.
worth noting that the grid-connected MG systems are mostly considered in this article.

Figure 1. Schematic view of a generalized microgrid.

Figure 1. Schematic view of a generalized microgrid.
Due to widespread attention, the overall implementation costs for MGs have been
declining for several years. Therefore, the already booming microgrid market is expected
to increase more in the near future. It is anticipated that the global MG power capacity will
be increased by 3.5 GW in 2020, and the number will be around 20 GW in 2029. However,
it is worth noting that the already installed power capacity of MGs in 2020 was around
25 GW [19,20]. Currently, Asia Pacific is the global leader in the MG market. The market
Sustainability 2022, 14, 14794 3 of 30

is concentrated in Australia, India, Japan, and China. This market primarily focuses on
remote MGs, except for Japan, where grid-connected systems are prominent. Although
North America is the second-highest MG market holder, this region is ranked number one
in the case of grid-connected MGs. In contrast, Europe is considered the leader in reducing
greenhouse gas emissions; this region represents only 9% of the MG market share. As an
alternative to the MG, they focus on another distributed energy resources platform, virtual
power plants, and other alternatives. Recently, a considerable uplifting has been observed
in Latin America due to a $14 billion long-term proposed MG project in Puerto Rico (Puerto
Rico is considered to be in Latin America, although it is US soil) [20].
However, the MG encounters energy management and coordination challenges due
to the integration with intermittent RER, load demand and electricity price uncertainty,
and ESS operation schedules. To reduce these issues and enhance MG energy manage-
ment operation, efficient EMSs are required [21]. The microgrid EMS implements optimal
scheduling in line with predefined objectives for optimizing energy costs by performing
required functionalities on a supporting platform [22–25]. It is also essential to balance
supply and demand by efficiently managing the internal energy flows and the grid link
in real-time. With an effective EMS, the MG provides cascaded benefits for networks,
clients, and environments [26–29]. Therefore, various EMS implementation methods for
microgrid applications have been reported [30–34]. Meliani et al. [35] discussed the man-
agement techniques reviewed by notable authors for different EMS solution approaches.
Sarzosa et al. [36] studied the EMS analysis scheme by identifying the main trends in the
database, information gathering, and paper selection, and they summarized classified
frameworks and features mainly on resolution techniques. They also proposed an EMS
case study where an objective function was defined for cost minimization. Ref. [37] intro-
duced the centralized EMS approaches in Inter-connected Multi-Microgrids to promote the
systematic use of distributed energy resources. The EMS in campus microgrids brought a
unique concept in reviewing optimization and modeling techniques [38].
A notable amount of articles reviewed energy management strategies for the MG. Most
of them focused on the typical control and operation strategies of the MG while developing
EMS schemes [39–44]. A good number of articles also addressed special issues, including
the control strategies for solar PV-based MGs [45], control strategies for individual and
community MGs [46], primary control strategies for islanded MGs [47], and power-sharing
strategies in the MG [48]. Another popular trend related to the EMS is the optimal sizing of
the MGs and their resources. For instance, the architecture, operating modes, and sizing
strategies were illustrated by Ouramdane et al. [49]. Refs. [50,51] reviewed optimal sizing
strategies of a stand-alone MG, while the optimal sizing of a hybrid MG was reviewed
in Ref. [52], and sizing strategies for solar PV-based MGs were presented in Ref. [53].
Okhuegbe et al. [54] critically analyzed the optimal sizing of hybrid energy resources and
employed optimization techniques. Refs. [55,56] reviewed the optimal sizing of energy
storage systems for MG applications and EMSs. Zhou et al. [57] illustrated a comprehensive
overview of typical functionalities and architectures of the multi-microgrid EMS. Besides,
other critical issues include flexible energy resources for renewable resources incorpora-
tion [55], decision-making strategies [56], types of distributed energy resources [58], energy
management challenges [59], and implementation of weather forecasts [60] for both AC
and DC microgrids. Refs. [61–63] reviewed the energy management strategies for smart
homes connected to renewable energy resources and electric vehicles. In the mentioned
articles, the authors mainly contributed to reviewing the control strategies, optimal sizing
of MG architecture and resources, and energy generation management. However, only
a few articles [64–66] reviewed the optimal scheduling of resources. To the best of the
authors’ knowledge, articles were rarely found that summarized MG energy management
strategies, optimization approaches applied to grid-connected systems, and relevant imple-
mentation challenges. Considering the mentioned notes, this article reviews and discusses
energy management strategies, optimization approaches applied to grid-connected sys-
 Sustainability 2022, 14, 14794 4 of 30

tems, and relevant implementation challenges. The specific contributions and novelties are
highlighted in the following points:
• It critically reviews the energy management strategies of the MG, focusing on load,
power generation, and energy storage systems management.
• It provides an insightful analysis of various optimization techniques, including clas-
sical, metaheuristic, and artificial intelligence, for the grid-tied MG to reduce opera-
tional costs.
• It also highlights MG implementation challenges and recommendations for researchers
and policymakers.
The remaining parts of the article are arranged in the following sections: Section 2
presents the research methodology, followed by the literature survey. Section 3 illustrates
the microgrid’s different energy management strategies, including generation, load, and
storage systems management. Section 4 presents the various optimization approaches
employed for microgrid energy management and scheduling. Section 5 discusses MG
implementation challenges, including technical, social, economic, security, and regulatory
challenges. Finally, the article summarizes the conclusions, with a few recommendations in
the Section 7.

2. Research Methodology
This article followed a systematic review to categorize the relevant studies and meta-
analyses for the topic under investigation. It deliberately analyzed recent ten-year literature
on microgrids’ EMSs, although searches were limited to papers written in English only.
The first keywords, such as artificial intelligence, challenges, energy management schemes,
computational intelligence, optimization, power systems, renewable energy resources, and
smart grid, were searched in Scopus from 2013 to 2022. Figure 2 represents the literature
survey results for five keywords: microgrid, smart + microgrid, microgrid + management,
microgrid + control + management, and microgrid + energy + management [67]. The search
discovered almost 400 documents, and this article picked nearly 250 of them from renowned
directories, including Science Direct, Springer, IEEE Explore, Wiley, and Multidisciplinary
Digital Publishing Institute (MDPI). In addition, this article also incorporated several
Sustainability 2022, 14, 14794 documents outside the mentioned directories, due to their significance and relevance 5 of 30
to the topic under investigation. Figure 3 shows the bibliometric visualization for the
author-supplied keywords of the microgrid EMS [68].

Literature survey
[Link]
Figure survey of
of energy
energymanagement
managementsystems
systemsforfor
thethe
MG [67].
MG [67].
Sustainability 2022, 14, 14794 5 of 30
Figure 2. Literature survey of energy management systems for the MG [67].

Figure 3.
Figure Bibliometric visualization
3. Bibliometric visualizationfor
forthe
theauthor-supplied
author-suppliedkeywords
keywordsof of
microgrid energy
microgrid manage-
energy manage-
ment systems, created with VOSviewer Software [68].
ment systems, created with VOSviewer Software [68].
3. Microgrid Energy Management Strategies
3. Microgrid Energy Management Strategies
In general, the major components of the MG are the load, generation units, and energy
In systems.
storage general, This
the major
sectioncomponents of the
briefly illustrates the MG are the load,
management of thegeneration units, and en-
mentioned components.
ergy storage systems. This section briefly illustrates the management of the mentioned
3.1. Load Management
components.
Precise load management of the MG systems has become a critical issue, as the MGs
are comprised of different kinds of loads. Therefore, an error-free load management tool
is necessary to ensure MG power management efficiency. Maintaining the balance of
generation versus load is always a critical issue for any power system operator. Likewise,
the MG control system must constantly analyze and prioritize loads to keep this balance. In
general, the MG loads can be primarily ramified as critical and non-critical loads, as shown
in Figure 4 [69]. Critical loads play crucial roles for a facility and need to be uninterruptible,
regardless of the situations encountered. Examples include hospitals, nursing facilities,
data centers, etc. On the other hand, a noncritical load can be divided into discretionary
loads and emergency load sheds. Discretionary loads can be shed during peak time to
reduce the load for a short time. Heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) equip-
ment, washers, dryers, water heaters, etc. fall under this category. Emergency shedding
loads of residential and commercial buildings are crucial for MG protection to avoid a
blackout. To detect the conditions where the non-essential load should be separated from
an island, Ref. [70] proposed the idea of an intelligent load shedder module to link in
series with non-critical loads. Moran [70] explored methodologies for calculating, priori-
tizing, and managing loads under all conditions to optimize efficiency. The classification
and identification of critical versus non-critical, and active versus inactive loads, along
with the maintenance of quantitative data, require some strategies for matching loads to
generation. Abdelazeem et al. [71] suggested a hybrid methodology to control energy in
residential, commercial, and industrial microgrids, based on demand-side management
and multi-agent systems.
Gawande et al. [72] used the concept of a series of electric springs to regulate fluc-
tuations in bus voltage and fault ride-through conditions. This study analyzed power
conservation during intermittency in generation by making non-critical loads absorb less
Sustainability 2022, 14, 14794 6 of 30

power, with stable power absorption by the critical load. Ahmed et al. [73] proposed a
neuro-fuzzy load priority list-based integrated EMS by implementing demand-side man-
agement while considering the importance of load sections, such as residential, commercial,
industrial, and hospital. In modern electrical networks, loads may also engage in energy
and generation management. According to a contract between the customer and net-
work owner, any loads should move their usage to off-peak at peak network time. The
consumption form refers to the quantity and dimension of requirements, including residen-
tial [74,75], commercial [76,77], and industrial [78,79] demands, based on the classification
of the connected loads. Table 1 presents various load management models as reported in
the recent literature. It is evident from the discussions that load management is an integral
part of efficient EMSs of the microgrid systems.

Table 1. Load management models reported in the recent literature.

Ref. Model Analysis

Kennedy et al. [71] Intelligent Load Shedder (ILS) module Detected non-critical load for being from the island
Abdelsalam et al. [72] Antlion Optimization Algorithm (ALO) Minimized total energy costs and maximized the load factor
Implement demand management based on the importance
Alahmed et al. [74] Neuro-fuzzy LPL-based system
of the load section
Forecasts to schedule limits hence improve the availability
Lee et al. [80] Two-stage stochastic programming
of power
Regulated bus voltage fluctuation and fault ride-through
Gawande et al. [73] DC series electric spring
condition
Sustainability 2022, 14, 14794 7 of 30
Investigated stochastic behavior of electric vehicles and
Sedighizadeh et al. [81] Hybrid big bang big crunch algorithm
other sensitive loads

Figure
Figure 4.
4. Microgrid load classification.
Microgrid load classification.

3.2. Power
3.2. Power Generation
Generation Management
Management
Distributed resources
Distributed resources areare
thethe
most dominant
most components
dominant of the MG
components systems,
of the and they and
MG systems, re-
quire sophisticated power control mechanisms to ensure smooth operation. Rathod et al. [82]
they require sophisticated power control mechanisms to ensure smooth operation. Rathod
presented the contributions of generation management in hybrid MGs, as well as the
et al. [82] presented the contributions of generation management in hybrid MGs, as well
grid integration of various DGs. The authors recommended using solid oxide fuel cells
as the grid integration of various DGs. The authors recommended using solid oxide fuel
(SOFC) as an auxiliary unit in the MG because of greater efficiencies. A study presented
cells (SOFC) as an auxiliary unit in the MG because of greater efficiencies. A study pre-
sented the generation management problems of MGs integrated with tidal energy in Dar-
win, Australia [83]. Two different models, namely frequency analysis and the electrical
model of the triple combined cycle (TCC)-based SOFC with gas and steam turbines, were
proposed by Obara and Miyazaki [84] to deal with power fluctuations due to large-scale
Sustainability 2022, 14, 14794 7 of 30

the generation management problems of MGs integrated with tidal energy in Darwin,
Australia [83]. Two different models, namely frequency analysis and the electrical model
of the triple combined cycle (TCC)-based SOFC with gas and steam turbines, were pro-
posed by Obara and Miyazaki [84] to deal with power fluctuations due to large-scale PV
modules in the MG. They used the swing equation for the SOFC-TCC grid-connected
frequency model and analyzed the power response characteristics of the electricity model.
Boqtob et al. [85] reviewed generation units’ contribution to managing load demand, con-
sidering the demand nature of MG categories. In a similar literary work, a combined droop
and communication-based EMS was recommended to regulate DG source voltage and
power to optimize the operation points of both grid-connected and stand-alone MGs [86].
Goyal et al. [87] analyzed the techniques of permanent magnet synchronous generator
(PMSG)-based wind energy integration. They used a modified droop control based on
synchronization to conserve constant frequency, in order to manage power fluctuations of
the wind energy system. Omkar et al. [88] demonstrated a fixed-speed PMSG-based total
transfer capability system model with power converters to understand how the tidal tur-
bine conversion system integrates with the microgrid. Based on the presented discussion,
it is obvious that power management of the distributed generation units is very crucial for
MG energy management systems.

3.3. Storage System Management

The ESS is an indispensable part of the MG systems for storing and dispatching electri-
cal power to smooth the intermittency of the load and RER generation, in order to maintain
stability, improve power quality, and ensure system reliability. The ESSs are classified as
electrical, mechanical, chemical, electrochemical, and thermal, based on their storage and
response characteristics. In the MG, a high-power density ESS ensures the management
of transient disturbances, while high-energy density devices provide power for a longer
duration. Various energy management strategies of the ESS were demonstrated in Ref. [89]
for different conditions of RER output power while meeting the power demands. The
battery management system (BMS) is one of the vital components of the microgrid EMS.
Puente et al. [90] highlighted the essential subsystems and control parameters based on the
security operations center and the charging/discharging of batteries while designing the
block diagram and charging algorithm of the BMS. To ensure dynamic power distribution
among multiple energy storage packs, a virtual battery algorithm was formulated to eval-
uate their power characteristics [91]. Conde et al. [92] defined the operational scenarios
of BMS control, highlighting the regulatory action of batteries using a power measure-
ment unit for overall system control. Several heuristic techniques, such as accelerated
particle swarm optimization (APSO), JAYA, particle swarm optimization (PSO), and lin-
ear programming-based interior point algorithms, were utilized for the microgrid EMS
to reduce operational costs [93]. In another application, Khan and Singh [94] employed
metaheuristic optimization techniques (PSO, GA, and DE) based on several parameters
of fitness with average values and the convergence of population to optimize the battery
management (charging and discharging mode of batteries) while solving the issues of
operational cost minimization. Table 2 briefly outlines the ESS management strategies for
MGs in maintaining power quality and reliability. From the presented analysis, it can be
concluded that appropriate ESS management as important for the microgrid EMS as the
load and power generation management.
Sustainability 2022, 14, 14794 8 of 30

Table 2. Recent storage system technologies with contributions.

Ref. Year ESS Technologies Contribution/Findings

Highlighted notable works on microgrid voltage regulation for
BESS and BESS-SC
Abadi et al. [95] 2022 supplying complex power load; then, implemented the
(Super Capacitor)
filtration-based MPC to analyze the ESS performance
Employed the pinch analysis method for comparative analysis
Amirthalakshmi et al. [96] 2022 Hybrid ESS
of the ESS
Proposed a droop control strategy considering various factors,
Ferahtia et al. [97] 2022 Multiple BESS including the SoC speed balancing method, droop factor,
voltage control, and current limit
Regulated DC (Direct Current) using dynamic evolution
control by minimizing power loss and oscillations; reported
Superconducting
Penthia et al. [98] 2018 superior voltage profile analysis across power converter for the
Magnetic Energy Storage
PI (Proportional Integral) controller and reduced total
harmonic distortion
Reduction of energy consumption using an optimal control
Saloux and Candanedo [99] 2020 Thermal Energy Storage
strategy
Reported higher amounts of hydrogen production and
Yin et al. [100] 2020 Hydrogen Storage System significant reductions in power fluctuations; investigated the
efficacy during the under-voltage situation
Gained the optimum harvested energy index and achieved
Sedighnejad et al. [101] 2014 Compressed Air ESS
better storage efficiency
Investigated different control strategies of the variable speed
Vasudevan et al. [102] 2021 Pumped Hydro Storage pumped hydro storage to elucidate the dominating approach
at each level of the control hierarchy
Proposed a robust fractional order controller for SCES to
Supercapacitor Energy
Yang et al. [103] 2021 minimize control error and expenses; then, enhanced controller
Storage
gain using an interactive teaching-learning optimizer

4. Optimization Approaches for Microgrid Energy Management

Many studies have been conducted based on the system’s topologies, architectures,
and operating modes [104–106]. For instance, the stochastic character of installed RESs can
be controlled and optimized by a dependable power supply to customers while maintaining
Sustainability 2022, 14, 14794 appropriate operating conditions for the storage system, electricity bill, and occupancies.
9 of 30
Suggested EMS optimization mechanisms are shown in Figure 5. The remainder of this
section contains a brief description of the selected approaches.

Figure
Figure 5.
5. Control
Controland
andoptimization
optimizationapproach of of
approach EMS.
EMS.

4.1. Objective
4.1. ObjectiveFunctions
Functionsand
andConstraints
Constraints
The deployment of EMS optimization techniques
The deployment of EMS optimization techniques outlines
outlines the
the primary
primary target
target func-
functions,
including
tions, power
including quality,
power dependability,
quality, pollution,
dependability, andand
pollution, costs [107–110].
costs [107–110].The fundamental
The funda-
goal of goal
mental utilizing economic
of utilizing objective
economic functions,
objective for example,
functions, is to reduce
for example, the price
is to reduce of power.
the price
of power. For cost reduction in MGs, many formulations have been investigated. For ex-
ample, the cost minimization problem was framed as a dynamic economic load dispatch
problem [111]. Jafari et al. [112] suggested an electrical market approach for improving
the dependability of islanded multi-MG networks. A techno-economic goal function was
Sustainability 2022, 14, 14794 9 of 30

For cost reduction in MGs, many formulations have been investigated. For example, the
cost minimization problem was framed as a dynamic economic load dispatch problem [111].
Jafari et al. [112] suggested an electrical market approach for improving the dependability
of islanded multi-MG networks. A techno-economic goal function was used to account
for the MG owners’ profit while enhancing the system’s reliability. For the probabilistic
modeling of RER and loads, distribution functions were employed, and an electrical market
strategy was developed to increase the profit of the MG owners.
However, power quality, particularly power loss, continues to be a significant concern
for system dependability. Murty et al. [113], who examined a multi-objective EM in a MG
system, enhanced a helpful literature study for multi-objective EM. Techno-economic analy-
sis and energy dispatch were given for independent and grid-connected MG infrastructure
with hybrid RER and storage devices. Following the definition of the system’s restrictions
and goal functions, appropriate optimization methods are needed to guarantee power
flows between the installed RER/storage and the MGs and between the MGs and the utility
grid. The remainder of this section is devoted to a review of critical approaches found
in the literature. The energy management system is a computerized system comprised
of a software platform that provides essential support for the effective generation and
transmission of electrical energy [56]. This platform also ensures adequate security of the
energy supply with minimal cost.

4.2. Classical Methods

The classical approaches mainly concentrate on optimizing the energy resources and
transmission with the mother grid. Still, a lot of work is needed to focus on the battery
depth of discharge, greenhouse gas emissions, the privacy of customers, and system
reliability. Two well-known classical solution methods of the EMS optimization approaches
are (a) linear and nonlinear programming methods and (b) dynamic programming and
rule-based methods. Several researchers used these strategies to solve the EMS control
approaches. For example, Sukumar et al. [114] presented an EMS combining continuous run
mode, power-sharing mode, and on/off mode. While the constant run and power-sharing
modes were solved using the linear programming optimization method, the on/off mode
was solved using the mixed-integer linear programming method (MILP). In most linear
programming approaches, the constraints and objective functions are linear functions
with whole-valued and real-valued choice variables. This methodology is frequently
used for system analysis and optimization because it is a versatile and powerful tool
for tackling big and complicated issues, such as distributed generating and MG systems.
Vergara et al. [115] used a non-linear programming method to minimize the cost of a
residential three-phase MG. The initial development of the non-linear model was then
converted into the MILP. The results showed that the converted method experienced
less error and computational time than the nonlinear three-phase optimal power flow
formulation. Heymann et al. [116] presented a dynamic programming optimization method.
The comparative results showed that this method was more effective in operational cost
and computation time than the classical non-linear and MILP methods. Wang et al. [117]
presented a Lagrange-programming neural networks (LPNN) approach for the efficient
control and administration of MG systems, with the primary goal of lowering the total
cost of the MG. This study divided the load into four categories: controlled load, thermal
load, price-sensitive load, and critical load, with variable neurons and Lagrange neurons
coupled to provide optimal MG operation scheduling.
More complicated problems that can be discretized and sequenced are solved using
dynamic programming approaches. The investigated issues are generally divided into
subproblems that are addressed optimally, and the acquired answers are then overlaid
to produce an optimum solution for the original problem [118]. A rule-based solution
approach is utilized for grid-connected and islanded modes of the MG [119]. As a result,
rule-based approaches are commonly used to implement the EM system, since they do not
require any future data profiles to decide, making them more suited to real-time applica-
Sustainability 2022, 14, 14794 10 of 30

tions. Bukar et al. [120], for instance, provided a rule-based EMS in which a rule-based
algorithm was utilized to implement RER use priority and control the power flow of the
suggested MG components. A nature-inspired optimization method was employed to
optimize the MG system’s operations with respect to long-term capacity planning. The pro-
posed objective function’s primary purpose was to reduce the cost of energy in MG systems
and the chance of power supply failure. Rule-based techniques for controlling and optimiz-
ing energy flow in MG systems have been presented in other papers. Merabet et al. [121]
devised a control method to ensure power compatibility with the EMS for various resources
in the MG. The hybrid system in the MG was experimentally validated using a real-time
control system. The findings indicated that the suggested technique kept the MG sub-
systems running smoothly under various power-generating and consumption situations.
Luu et al. [122] investigated a method for constructing the optimal EM for a MG-connected
system that considered the cost of energy trading with the main grid, as well as the cost
of battery aging. The authors employed a dynamic programming technique to reduce the
system’s cash flow while optimizing the power supply from the main grid. Unlike tradi-
tional techniques, dynamic programming algorithms may be thought of as mathematical
optimization methods that can break down a complex issue into smaller sub-problems that
can then be addressed recursively. They can make the best judgments. However, they come
at a high cost in processing, making them challenging to implement in embedded devices.
Table 3 demonstrates the review of classical techniques for the microgrid EMS in recently
published articles.

Table 3. Review of some recent literature on classical techniques for microgrid energy management.

Ref. Method Contributions Application Key Findings

Water-energy Water sector energy demand was
Moazeni and
MILP Minimizing the daily cost of energy microgrid decreased by maintaining a cleaner supply
Khazaei [123]
system to the energy sector
Dynamic Islanded and
Vitale et al. Development of a fast reduced-order Achieved reduced payback period through
program- grid-tied
[124] sub-model the proper capacity exploration
ming microgrids
Pedro et al. Modeled an unbalanced three-phase electrical Islanded Reduced average maintenance load and
MINLP
[125] distribution system with droop control microgrids cost curtailments
Identified an open-source modeling framework Recommended robust and optimal system
Balderrama Linear pro- Community
to bridge the gap between field practices and configurations with a minimal impact on
et al. [126] gramming microgrid
two-stage stochastic modeling approaches the final costs for the community
Non-linear Minimized overall device errors (~25%)
Iqbal et al. Modelling of a peer-to-peer energy-sharing Community
program- compared to traditional sharing
[127] strategy microgrid
ming mechanisms
Stochastic Achieved better economic and synergetic
Development of a multi-period investment Islanded
Liu et al. [128] program- performances compared to the traditional
planning scheme microgrid
ming model.
Optimization- Canadian Yielded better overall performance over the
Development, implementation, and
Restrepo et al. and Renewable rule-based EMS using similar
commissioning of different EMS strategies for
[129] rule-based Energy communication links while maintaining
testbed microgrid
EMS Laboratory stability.
Long-term
The optimization problem minimizes
Bukar et al. Development of a rule-based energy capacity
Rule-based energy costs and maximizes system
[130] management scheme based on queuing theory. planning for
reliability.
MG
Management and control of a microgrid with
Almada et al. distributed energy resources under standalone MG control and management techniques
Rule-based AC microgrid
[120] operation, grid connection, and transition work well under all operating conditions
between the aforementioned operating modes
The rule-based method performed better
Enhancing the energy management of a Grid-
Rippia et al. than the MILP while ensuring nearly no
Rule-based grid-connected microgrid comprised of connected
[119] performance loss by offering a sizable
renewable energy sources, loads, and ESS microgrids
decrease in computation time
Sustainability 2022, 14, 14794 11 of 30

4.3. Heuristic and Metaheuristic Approaches

Heuristic and metaheuristic methods are frequently used in the literature to solve
complex and non-differentiable optimization problems from various engineering fields,
including transportation, communication, power systems, product distribution, and mi-
crogrid energy management [131]. Among many approaches, the genetic algorithm and
particle swarm optimization methods are two popular meta-heuristic methods to solve the
EMS of the MG, due to their parallel computational ability. Chalise et al. [132] formulated a
multi-objective EMS concentrating on a remote MG’s economic load dispatch and battery
degradation cost. This work considered day-ahead scheduling using a genetic algorithm
and real-time operation using a rule-based approach. A PSO-based optimal EMS for both
islanded and grid-connected modes of the MG has been proposed in [133]. The objective
functions for the islanded and grid-connected modes were to minimize the operational
and maintenance costs and maximize the energy trading profit with the primary grid. The
results show that this technique provided a better solution than the genetic algorithm in
terms of the global optimum solution and the time of computation. Apart from these two
well-known solution approaches, the genetic algorithm and PSO methods of the EMS,
there are other approaches, such as differential evolution [134], gray wolf optimization
(GWO) [135], ant colony optimization (ACO) [136], etc.
Paperi et al. [137] presented a heuristic technique for determining the best function-
ing and EMS of the MG system. The research topic was framed as a single-objective
optimization problem, only focusing on cost reduction. Khan et al. [138] presented a
metaheuristic-based system by combining the Harmony search algorithm with improved
differential evolution. During peak periods, several knapsacks were utilized to ensure
that power consumption was below a predetermined threshold value—the suggested
system beat existing metaheuristic approaches in terms of cost and peak-to-average ratio.
Ref. [139] suggested a genetic algorithm-based optimum EMS system for a grid-connected
MG system that considered electricity price, power usage, and RER generation uncer-
tainty. The multi-period gravitational search method solves a deterministic EM issue [140].
Aghajani et al. [141] employed a multi-objective PSO method while addressing the EMS
of the MG system. Wei et al. [142] created a standalone modular microgrid model to
shorten the feasible economic dispatch regions, formulate an optimization model, and
define optimum microgrid system operating strategies. An improved genetic algorithm
was proposed to investigate this problem. The employed strategy was capable of solving
the EMS problems with many constraints and produced a high-quality solution. Prasant
and Joseph [143] developed a methodology for evaluating the techno-economic and en-
vironmental efficiency of supplying uninterrupted electricity to a microgrid composed
of seven components—wind turbines, solar PV, lead-acid batteries, fuel cells, biodiesel
generators, electrolyzes, and small-scale hydrogen tanks—in Tucson, Lubbock, and Dickin-
son, TX, USA. They measured the configurations with the lowest levelized cost of energy
(LCOE) using the genetic algorithm. Table 4 summarizes the meta-heuristic methods for the
microgrid EMS. It was evident from the presented analysis that the various meta-heuristic
approaches showed satisfactory performances in achieving optimal solutions (minimal
costs or maximum profits) while solving microgrid EMS problems with various constraints
and uncertainties. Besides, in most of the cases the authors reported better or competitive
efficacy for their employed algorithms compared to others. However, it is challenging to
come up with solid conclusions about the superiority of any specific algorithm, as they all
should provide similar results ideally due to their stochastic nature. Besides, their efficacy
also depends on the proper selection of the hyper-parameters.
Sustainability 2022, 14, 14794 12 of 30

Table 4. Recent literature on meta-heuristic techniques for microgrid energy management.

Ref. Algorithm Contributions Application Key Findings

Hybridization of WOA with a non-dominated Achieved optimal solutions with lower computational
Quazi et al. [144] NSWOA Islanded microgrid
sorting technique expenses compared to other reported algorithms
Investigation of strategies to synthesize rule-based Reduced the system complexity and maximized profit
Leonori et al. [145] GA Demand response services
fuzzy inference systems generation by 10% compared to the referenced solution
Formulation of the multi-objective problem for Enhancement of system performance and flexibility
Hussein et al. [146] SFOA Inverter based microgrid
controller parameter tuning compared to particle swarm optimization
Determination of optimal locations and sizes for Reduced transmission power loss and achieved faster
Almadhor et al. [147] BAPSO PV-based microgrid
the solar generation systems convergence with less computational burden
Achieved superior performance with the GWO-tuned
Optimization problem formulation for load
Singh and Gope [148] GWO Two-area multi-microgrid controller over the cuckoo search algorithm-tuned
frequency control
controller
Development of an optimal power scheduling Savings of 62.5% in overall costs and 61.98% in carbon
Roslan et al. [149] LSA Scheduling controller
strategy dioxide emission reduction
Formulation of the multi-objective problem Generation of quality solutions with a competitive
Shafiullah et al. [135] GWO Community microgrid
considering ESS degradation cost computational effort
Obtained a reduced average cost of electricity by meeting
Suman et al. [150] PSO-GWO Formulation of the optimal planning problem Rural microgrid
a good portion of the load demand
Optimization problem formulation for
Avoided pre-mature convergence and generated
Soham and Kamal [151] CE-DE minimization of running costs and reduction of Benchmarked microgrids
competitive solutions
pollution.
Evolutionary Development of control strategies for power and Reduced operation costs and energy losses, thus
Perol et al. [77] Low voltage microgrids
algorithms energy management improving overall efficiency
Proposed an optimal battery control strategy for Achieved a 12% reduction in operation costs for a time
Hossain et al. [152] Modified PSO Grid-tied microgrids
real-time management horizon of 96 h
Solved supply-demand problems to minimize Islanded and grid-tied Generated around 8% higher profit with better
Kavitha et al. [153] MPO
production costs microgrids optimization ability and faster convergence
Monte-Carlo tree Developed a unified approach for optimal energy Improved supplied energy quality and reduced the
Tomin et al. [154] Community microgrids
search algorithm and benefits management levelized cost of energy index from 20% to 40%
Sustainability 2022, 14, 14794 13 of 30

4.4. Artificial Intelligence Methods

Artificial neural networks are an example of a method that is created artificially. They
are stochastic approaches that may be utilized to address optimization issues for systems
that contain random variables. The fluctuating nature of RER in MG systems is caused
by meteorological conditions, which impact electricity generation. Solanki et al. [155]
presented a mathematical approach for intelligent load control in a stand-alone MG system.
Neural networks were utilized to simulate the loads examined, and a predictive control
was applied to manage the energy, based on expected load fluctuation. The EMS based
on artificial intelligence primarily concentrated on Fuzzy logic and neural networks [156],
as well as multi-agent systems. A fuzzy logic-based EMS with a battery and hydrogen
energy storage system for a microgrid has been proposed [157]. The authors claimed
that this solution could respond well to required load demands and meet the established
technical and economic criteria. Wang et al. [118] formulated a neural network-based EMS
for the MG. The objective function is to reduce the overall fuel, operation, maintenance,
and emission cost of the generation units. Ghorbani et al. [158] proposed a multi-agent-
based EMS approach, where consumers, storage units, generation units, and the grid are
considered agents for a grid-connected MG. In this work, the objective function was to
reduce power imbalance costs. Results showed that the time required to take the decision
was better for the decentralized approach than that of the centralized approach. Among the
other known artificial intelligence solution techniques, game theory, the Markov decision
process, and theadaptive intelligence technique are remarkable.
Neural networks are primarily used to regulate, optimize, and detect system charac-
teristics in online and offline applications. Given their capacity to address the system’s
stability through self-learning and prediction skills, neural networks, unlike prior tech-
niques, can handle issues with nonlinear data in large-scale MG systems [159–161]. Despite
the solutions’ efficacy, intelligent energy management in smart MG systems still needs real-
time and predictive control methodologies. Table 5 illustrates various artificial intelligence
methods related to microgrid EMSs.

Table 5. Review of artificial intelligence methods related to microgrid energy management.

Ref. Technique Contributions Application Key Findings

Exhibited superior performance
Developed day-ahead fuzzy rules for
Multi-energy compared to the online rule-based and
Dong et al. [162] Fuzzy logic real-time energy management under
microgrid meta-heuristic optimization-based
various operational uncertainty
offline scheduling schemes
Proposed the control strategies for Achieved better controllability
Zehra et el. [163] Fuzzy logic renewable energy resources and DC microgrid compared to the sliding and integral
battery storage systems sliding mode controllers
Addressed demand-generation Exhibited lower voltage overshoot and
Singh and Lather Low-voltage DC
HBSANN disparity for effective power-sharing settling time compared to conventional
[164] microgrid
between various ESS. strategy
Exhibited the highest model
Nakabi and Reinforcement Outlined various flexible resources for
Microgrid performance and convergence to
Toivanen [165] learning coordination with priority
near-optimal policies
Designed a multi-objective Achieved a 36.86% lower forecasting
Tan and Chen [166] NN optimization model for multiple Multiple microgrids error; obtained better pareto solutions
microgrid systems and faster convergence
Developed a hybrid approach for Queensland electric Reduced the mean absolute percentage
Tayab et al. [167] HHO-FNN
short-term load forecasting market error ranging from 33.30% to 60.76%
Proposed a maximum power point
Established the superiority of the
tracking model for multiple
Priyadarshini et al. PV-BESS integrated employed approach over the
EE-RRVFLN PV-integrated MG under partial
[168] microgrid conventional and random vector
shading conditions and load
functional link neural networks
uncertainty.
Sustainability 2022, 14, 14794 14 of 30

4.5. Other Methods

Proactive control is one of the most intriguing EMS methods. This technique is based
on a mixed-integer optimal control issue, which can be expressed as a mixed-integer nonlin-
ear programming problem [123]. According to the literature, the notion of proactive control
for EM in MG systems is seldom applied. For control-based prediction judgments, the
notion is particularly appealing. Proactive control can be enhanced in future investigations
for EM in MG systems, thanks to the advancement of information and communication
technologies, particularly microcontrollers. In addition, the approach can improve the
system’s performance in existing system disruptions. Amirioun et al. [169] provided a
MG proactive control method for dealing with the adverse effects of severe windstorms.
When the anticipated windstorm alerts arrived, the method discovered a conservative MG
schedule with the fewest susceptible branches operating while the whole load was serviced.
The cautious timetable guaranteed that the MG functioned normally before the windstorm,
while decreasing the MG’s susceptibility when the event arrived. This technique benefited
from generation rescheduling, network reconfiguration, parameter tuning of the droop-
controlled units, and conservation voltage regulation. Panteli et al. [170] talked about
unified resilience evaluation, the operational enhancement method, and a technique for
evaluating the impact of severe weather conditions. Another study by Amin et al. [171]
combined BESS and PV systems under a hierarchical transactive EM method to lower cus-
tomer power costs. A cost-benefit analysis technique that integrated PV units with battery
storage systems was created for proactive residences. The control algorithm managed the
battery’s charge/discharge cycle based on a cost-benefit analysis of real-time energy rates
and battery costs, providing users with a precise estimate of their investment returns and
annual savings. When a proactive system is handled utilizing predictive techniques, the
performance of this method may be improved. Reactive Feedback Control and Model Pre-
dictive Control were compared with respect to energy used, energy error, and management
effort for a specific data center by Rahmani et al. [172]. The research suggested a data center
model-based feedback control method to improve service quality, energy consumption, and
managerial effort. Moreover, the combination of different approaches mentioned earlier
was also used in a few cases for energy management in microgrid systems [173–176].

5. Microgrids Implementation Challenges

The increasing demand for distributed power generation brings attention to MGs [177].
The ideal method for utilizing MGs is by making their challenges or limitations adap-
tive [33]. This section reviews the challenges of microgrids and epitomizes existing and
proposed solution techniques to overcome the flexible challenges in microgrids. Figure 6
depicts the summarized view of the microgrid’s implementation challenges.

5.1. Economic Issues

Many complexities will arise regarding potential revenue and multiple users for indi-
cating the cost and benefits in an MG. Among them, standby charges and exit fees [178] are
the major issues that need to be resolved for developing microgrids. Kraemer et al. [179]
identified some optimization problems with economic perspectives, such as the energy mar-
ket, generation information, etc. However, some factors regarding the levelized cost need
to be reduced by utilizing government subsidies and initializing energy programs [180].
The rising fuel costs for diesel generators is another significant barrier that needs to be
addressed with care. Bellido et al. [181] made a vital remark to decimate the Am Steinweg
MG’s EMS cost by making grid integration feasible. But management control systems need
to be economically sustainable by supporting energy regulations [182].
 Sustainability
Sustainability 14,14,
2022,
2022, 14794
14794 1515
of 30
of 30

Figure
[Link]
Microgridimplementation challenges.
implementation challenges.

[Link]
5.1. Social Obstacles
Issues
As thecomplexities
Many MGs introduce willcomplexity to the market,
arise regarding potentialthey may cause
revenue and negative
multipleimpacts onin-
users for
society due
dicating to the
the cost regulatory
and benefits gaps
in anthat
[Link]
Among them,mightstandby
not understand
chargesandandbe impacted
exit fees [178]
by. Consumers need to be aware of the smart grid’s beneficiary role in low carbon energy
are the major issues that need to be resolved for developing microgrids. Kraemer et al.
access, which is a greater obstacle to its strategic development, as well as ensure active
[179] identified some optimization problems with economic perspectives, such as the en-
participation in demand response management to become prosumers [183]. The lack
ergy market, generation
of supportive information,
regularities and awareness etc. However, some factors
among customers hindersregarding
effective the levelized
microgrid
cost need to be reduced by utilizing government subsidies and initializing
systems [184]. In multi-level architecture, the coordination of several small-scale MGs is energy pro-
grams [180]. The rising
very challenging, due to fuel costs forofdiesel
the conflicts generators
the owner’s is another
demands significant
[185]. Therefore, barrier that
appropriate
needs to be addressed with care. Bellido et al. [181] made
frameworks should be developed to overcome the mentioned challenges. a vital remark to decimate the
Am Steinweg MG’s EMS cost by making grid integration feasible. But management con-
[Link]
trol Engineering
needChallenges
to be economically sustainable by supporting energy regulations [182].
The development of microgrid infrastructure requires several factors to be ensured
5.2.
forSocial Obstacles
overall system management, which is discussed in brief in the following parts of
thisAs
subsection.
the MGs introduce complexity to the market, they may cause negative impacts on
society due to the
5.3.1. Technical regulatory gaps that customers might not understand and be impacted
Issues
by. Consumers need to be aware of the smart grid’s beneficiary role in low carbon energy
Protection: MG setup must be designed with sufficient sequenced protection equip-
access, which is a greater obstacle to its strategic development, as well as ensure active
ment [186]. The protection of load, distributed generators, and lines must be ensured when
participation in MG
establishing an demand
[187].response management
Due to multiple to short
DG units, become prosumers
circuit [183].
current level The lack
variation in of
supportive regularities and awareness among customers hinders effective microgrid
grid-connected microgrids creates some issues. In the islanded mode, the total short circuit sys-
tems [184].
current In multi-level
capacity architecture,
differs from the coordination
the grid-connected of several
condition, small-scale
leading MGs
to the failure ofisthe
very
challenging, due[188].
protection relay to theThus,
conflicts of theforowner’s
protection demands
a dual mode [185]. Therefore,
that protects appropriate
both grid-connected
frameworks
and islanded should
modes beisdeveloped
prioritizedtofor
overcome the mentioned
safe operation. challenges.
Shanmugapriya et al. [189] have
pointed out several protection challenges of DC microgrids, such as grounding, power
5.3. Engineering
instability, etc., Challenges
of which the fault intervention of circuit breakers is the most crucial, since
no zero-crossing current
The development of exists for DC
microgrid faults. Some protection
infrastructure devicesfactors
requires several are recommended
to be ensured
from the summarized flowcharts used in Sandia National Laboratories,
for overall system management, which is discussed in brief in the following where digital mi-
parts of this
croprocessor relays exhibit better fault detection and monitoring performance following
subsection.
the standard IEEE C37.90-2005 [190]. Moreover, solid-state circuit breakers with different
categories are the most suitable because of their high current carrying capacity and switch-
5.3.1. Technical Issues
Protection: MG setup must be designed with sufficient sequenced protection equip-
ment [186]. The protection of load, distributed generators, and lines must be ensured
when establishing an MG [187]. Due to multiple DG units, short circuit current level
Sustainability 2022, 14, 14794 16 of 30

ing speeds with no arcing. Altaf et al. [191] have reviewed the protection schemes in which
solutions are provided for each fault event. In another review work, the protection schemes
were identical for each microgrid mode (islanded, grid-connected, and hybrid) to analyze
the test features for DG units and loads [192].
Stability: In an MG system, maintaining the system stability with static converter-
based RER is one of the main challenges [193]. A microgrid system faces three main issues
related to stability: angular instability caused by lower system inertia, voltage instability
due to lower power distribution support, and lower frequency oscillation triggered by
changing energy sharing ratios between the DGs [182,194]. Eskandari and Savkin [195]
have recommended a sliding mode controller as a sustainable solution to MG-transient
stability issues. Furthermore, while addressing the cyber security concerns about the
stability of the DC microgrid, Leng et al. [196] have designed a flowchart for an adaptive
stabilization mechanism to annihilate cyber-attack elements from the microgrid.
Operation/Control: The absence of standard maintenance procedures is another prime
factor that affects MG sustainability [197]. Swift and exact voltage and frequency control
are essential requirements for weak low-voltage network-based microgrids to operate in
islanded mode [198]. The continuous operation of the plant raises the microgrid system’s
maintenance requirements [199]. A model predictive control approach has been used
to improve power, cost, and production along with the presence of uncertainties [200].
The Newton method allows the use of full state-space models, including the complete
representation of the control systems. This results in an outstanding, straightforward
alternative for harmonic stability and power quality analysis [201].
Harmonics: Harmonics in the microgrids hinder the electrical network’s stable op-
eration by threatening the safety of the appliances, including sources, loads, and energy
storage systems [194]. Due to the operation of power converters, harmonics rise, and this
needs to be tackled with care for the safe and secure operation of the MG systems [182]. A
single-tuned Passive Harmonic Filter has been proposed to mitigate harmonics from the
grid and renewable energy sources [202].

5.3.2. Reliability
Power system instability brought on by MG energy management raises the possibility
of significant events like blackouts. Recent research has concentrated on a variety of topics,
including the management of variable RER in MGs under reliability constraints [203],
the reliable energy management of hybrid RER-based MGs with unit commitment and
energy storage [204,205], stability analysis according to power load characteristics [206],
and reliability assessments of the microgrid EM that take cyberattack localization and
tolerant control into account [207]. Reliability research of EM considers the unavailability
of DGs and mobile generation, since MGs are typically located close to the distribution
side, where two main phases of load demand, as well as peak and off-peak hours, are
under investigation. The distribution side of the MG architecture is being explored with
the ultimate objective of increasing the architecture’s resilience through continuous power
delivery to meet demand.

5.3.3. Management
A MG management system involves tasks involving appropriate design, standard
maintenance, sufficient local expertise, monitoring systems, project supervision, etc. [200].
All these tasks must be coordinated appropriately to implement a successful renewable-
based MG to ensure its project duration and standards.

5.3.4. Design Factors

A magazine article on MG solutions demonstrated several challenges to be addressed
while designing a robust MG. Anti-islanding tests must be passed by creating a control
system with an interconnection switch. Cybersecurity is one of the key considerations
Sustainability 2022, 14, 14794 17 of 30

when selecting an open standard communication system, in which certification from the
accreditation board is necessary and allows for smarter apparatus and automation systems.

5.4. Security Challenge of AMI

With the fast-growing development of smart grids, technology such as advanced
metering infrastructure (AMI) used in these systems has led to further advancement. The
technological challenges related to fast data acquisition can be tackled quickly with the
deployment of AMI [208]. Thus, if attackers analyze the data, they can achieve alarmingly
high precision “Consumer profiling,” and be able to know, for instance, the number of
people living in the building, type of appliances, advanced metering infrastructure based
on smart meters in smart grid protection capacities, occupancy periods, and alarming
systems. Profiling allows attackers to detect consumer actions without sophisticated al-
gorithms or computer-aided software. The AMI security issues will typically emerge
from three distinct aspects: end-user safety, cyber-attack network resilience, and power
theft [209]. For instance, Ref. [210] demonstrated that the AMI systems (intelligent elec-
tronic devices and phasor measurement units) were at risk for data manipulation while
undergoing performance evaluation of the grid-tied MG. J. Murrill et al. [211] demonstrated
the ability to classify the usage of significant devices in a customer’s home by analyzing
accumulated energy consumption data from a smart meter. Dorri et al. [212] introduced
a blockchain-based system that allows energy prosumers to negotiate distributed energy
prices and exchange energy. The authors [213] conducted an innovative metering network
security study containing over one million smart meters, over 100 data collectors, and two
meter data management systems. They demonstrated the importance of systematically
identifying each target—particularly the vital data collector—and its components and
functionality. Potential attacks and their direct impacts provided a security review of a
broad metering network.
The scheme suggested in Ref. [214] can ensure higher safety and performance.
Shrestha et al. [215] proposed an AMI-based secure operation approach for complex net-
works, such as the smart grid. A safe and multi-recipient scheme was proposed to solve
security issues with remote downlink control commands in Ref. [216]. Researchers also
investigated a deeper understanding of cyber-security priorities, criteria, and future re-
search developments in the smart grid [217]. Li et al. [218] presented the importance of the
Internet of Things (IoT) and a cyber-secure distributed strategic energy plan that provides
distributed decision-making intelligence to networked microgrids while safeguarding their
specific mandates for optimal functioning. Kimani et al. [219] addressed the implementa-
tion of the IoT as a smart grid-enabling technology, with a detailed survey of key security
concerns and challenges. They also described major challenges and future solutions in
IoT-based grid networks. Authors built attack trees to evaluate the paths a cyber attacker
could take to attack a local metering network [220]. The security overview of the different
schemes is discussed in Table 6, by considering certain safety criteria. Besides, an insight
into how effective the schemes are relative to each other is also presented. Those parameter
schemes, forward and backward security, authentication, confidentiality, integrity, key
freshness, key sharing, and key generation are considered. The processes of key refresh-
ment, key sharing, and key generation are performed through multiple steps involving
contact between various AMI entities. It is essential to provide optimized overhead com-
munication for key refreshment, key sharing, and key generation for time-critical scenario
processes. Main refreshing depends on how users enter or leave the disaster recovery (DR)
project. The group key is refreshed during the update, i.e., when a user enters or quits
the DR project. The forward confidentiality applies to the fact that new users will not
access previously used hidden keys and messages involved in a DR project. In comparison,
backward confidentiality means that users who exit a DR project cannot access future
hidden keys. Regarding group key management, forward secrecy relates that the expelled
members would be unaware of the new community switch. Backward confidentiality in
group key management ensures that new members cannot gain information about previous
Sustainability 2022, 14, 14794 18 of 30

group keys. Preserving confidentiality forwards and backwards should be assured if users
involved in DR projects are not reliable and have the privilege to join the DR project or
leave it at any time.
Islam et al. [221] optimized the attack signal to maximize gains from legal participants
while preserving supply-demand equilibrium in the local energy market. Additionally,
block-chain-enabled microgrids can contribute to a grid that is more affordable, resilient,
environmentally friendly, and has low transmission loss [222]. The benefits and drawbacks
of integrating blockchain with microgrids should be thoroughly investigated. In addition,
other distributed ledger methods like Tangle or Hashgraph might be safer for managing
information and energy trade [223].

Table 6. Security analysis of the smart metering system in recent literature.

Forward and Backward Key Key Key

Authors Scheme Authentication Confidentiality Integrity
Security Freshness Sharing Generation
Nabeel √ √ √ √ √ √
SEES ×
et al. [224]
Benmalek √ √ √
Mk-AMI × × × ×
et al. [225]
Yu et al. √ √ √ √ √
KMSS-IC × ×
[226]
Benmalek √ √ √ √ √
ESKAMI × ×
et al. [218]
Wan et al. √ √ √ √ √ √
SKM ×
[227]
Benmalek √ √ √ √ √ √ √
SAMI
et al. [228]
Odelu et al. √ √ √ √ √ √
- ×
[229]
√ √ √ √ √
Gope [219] PMAKE × ×

5.5. Regulatory and Policy Issues

Most power-consuming nations are looking at alternative energy sources, such as
renewable energy, to reduce conventional fossil fuels and the expenses connected with
using them. However, due to policy considerations and its experimental nature, renewable
energy lacks a well-acknowledged structure for implementation. As a result, several policies
have been implemented to promote renewable energy and distributed energy resources
technologies [230]. Since the late 1970s oil and gas crises, the United States has established
several energy regulations, such as the IEEE standard 1547-Family, introduced around
2005 [231]. This regulation is critical to energy sustainability and electricity quality. In
addition, these policies provide economic incentives, such as exclusion from loss penalties
of distribution and transmission, as well as exemption from the climate change assessment.
More initiatives in the United States have centered on R&D programs, grants, software and
tools, and financing assistance to encourage sustainability initiatives [232].
In the European Union (EU), MG regulation has several issues regarding security,
client and energy supplier management, legality, limits, and connections with the primary
grid [233]. The EU announced a strategy to reduce fuel use by 20% by 2020 to create a
sustainable and steady energy supply. The EU unveiled its 2030 vision in 2014, intending
to boost the adoption of renewable energy technology by up to 27% and with respect to
greenhouse gas emissions lowering from 40% to 95% by 2050 [234]. The EU introduced the
IEC TS 62257-9-2 standard in 2016, followed by the IEC TS 62898-1/2/3 in 2018 and the PD
IEC TS 62898-2 in 2020.
Using the policy network theory for the Renewables Portfolio Standard conception
in the USA, Pentagon communication mapping among stakeholders had outlined the
overall procedure in which the Action Plan helped define legislation policies [235]. The
Sustainability 2022, 14, 14794 19 of 30

Renewable Energy Policy in the UAE, with a vision to expand energy contribution to 7% by
the World Expo 2020, had encountered several challenges; among them, the need for a joint
task force between the federal government and Sharjah Electricity and Water Authority is
especially remarkable.
China’s tariff strategy is intended to encourage the exploration of renewable en-
ergy [236]. By offering privileged pricing, this tariff strategy can supply a continual buy
price to the power seller of the grid business with a suitable market rivalry. To promote the
use of renewable energy, China enacted various policies, regulations, and programs, includ-
ing the national climate change program in 2002, renewable energy legislation revisions
in 2009, and a favorable tax strategy for renewable energy in 2015 [237]. South Africa’s
current policy frameworks are entirely built towards grid electrification, which is skewed
and acts against the viability of microgrid use [238]. South Africa’s energy sectors, like
those of other African nations, are generally regulated by prioritizing, rules, legislation,
and monopolistic laws, which regrettably favor grid electrification while limiting rural
electrification. Many countries are beginning to evaluate these rules and legislation to bring
to private sector engagement and other major energy actors [183].
In South-East Asian regions, while studying Thailand’s microgrid policy perspective,
the key drivers to develop microgrid policies have been identified, in which the objectives
of electricity access with other essential infrastructures need to be fulfilled to achieve the
United Nations Sustainable Development goal of clean energy [239]. The renewable energy
policies of Malaysia, which adopted Economic Planning Unit and the Implementation and
Coordination Unit, have been revised to promote the utilization of Palm oil under the
National Biofuel Policy, and the action plans are defined to enhance renewable energy
capacity to 5.5% [240]. On the other hand, MGs in Singapore experience regulatory barriers
to solving the issues of market liberalization, energy share, and ownership under the
Electricity Act, as well as microgrid interconnection for licensing under section 2006b of the
Energy Market Authority [241]. Microgrid electricity market operators in Australia have
realized the drawbacks of existing regulatory regimes unsuitable for complex DERs, and
analyzed two distinct regulatory reforms for this purpose.

6. Drawbacks and Recommendations

Since the paper focuses on strategies and the optimization of EMS, some drawbacks
regarding the literature review have been identified to make room for improvement for
further research on EMS strategies. These drawbacks are described in detail:
• Feasibility studies of EMS regarding grid integration processes need to be addressed.
In addition, studies on the enhancement of existing energy management infrastruc-
tures and their limitations to grid-connected and off-grid microgrids are also required
for the optimization process.
• Marketing research and supply-chain management need to be addressed to draw
the attention of investors regarding the features of the EMS framework. Ref. [242]
identified the problem regarding ROI (Return on Investment) for MG owners.
• More review works are necessary to realize the complications behind the underde-
veloped EMS framework in least-developed and developing countries. In this case,
MG policies and task forces need to be outlined to attract investors for microgrid
EMS development.
• Guidelines are required for testing and commissioning reports of the EMS in special-
ized laboratory environments before their deployment for industrial users.
This review work might be beneficial for those who are involved in the research and
development work of the microgrid EMS. It is suggested to follow the energy management
strategies to upgrade the DGs. Energy emissions from DGs responsible for global warming
could be surpassed in future research contributions following the optimization approaches
discussed in this review. It is also possible to implement an advanced computation system
for the distribution networks in MGs utilizing the optimization approaches suggested in
this paper.
Sustainability 2022, 14, 14794 20 of 30

7. Conclusions
The MG is one of the hot research topics for power system researchers that includes sev-
eral aspects, such as energy management and scheduling, controller design, and protection
schemes. Thus, research publications have been growing exponentially and skyrocketing
in recent years. In line with the trends, the microgrid EMS gained attention, due to various
complexities ranging from the integration of intermittent RER, to uncertain load demand
and continuous changes in electricity prices. This review article investigated the different
strategies employed for energy management in microgrids. First, it discussed various strate-
gies for load demand, energy generation, and energy storage systems management. Then,
optimization approaches such as classical, metaheuristic, and artificial intelligence-based
techniques employed for EM and resource scheduling were reviewed. The metaheuristic
optimization approaches were found to be more efficient than the classical approaches in
solving complex optimization EMS formulations, and in achieving competitive solutions.
Finally, various challenges, including economic, social, technical, security, and regula-
tory, which hampered the microgrid implementation were also discussed. The article
also provided suggestions for overcoming the challenges related to MG implementation
and EMS. It was evident from the observations that further research, development, and
innovation projects should be conducted to realize the complete potential of the technology
for enabling more RER integration and reducing greenhouse gas emissions. Besides, the
comparative analysis between the simulation findings with the experimental outcomes can
then be compared.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, M.S., M.E.H. and M.S.A.; methodology, M.S., A.A.,
M.E.H., A.M.R., A.G.A. and D.M.H.C.; software, M.E.H.; formal analysis, M.S.A., S.H. and M.S.H.; in-
vestigation, A.M.R., D.M.H.C., S.H. and M.S.H.; resources, A.M.R., A.A., D.M.H.C., S.H., A.G.A. and
M.S.H.; data curation, A.M.R., D.M.H.C., S.H., A.A. and M.S.H.; writing—original draft preparation,
A.M.R., D.M.H.C., M.E.H., M.S.H. and M.S.; writing—review and editing, M.S., A.A., A.G.A. and
M.S.A.; supervision, M.S., A.A. and M.E.H.; project administration, M.S., A.A. and M.E.H.; funding
acquisition, M.S., A.G.A. and M.S.A. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of
the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by the Interdisciplinary Research Center for Renewable Energy and
Power Systems at the King Fahd University of Petroleum & Minerals under grant number INRE 2104.
Acknowledgments: The authors acknowledge the research support provided by the Interdisciplinary
Research Center for Renewable Energy and Power Systems at the King Fahd University of Petroleum
& Minerals, Dhahran 31261, Saudi Arabia.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Abbreviations
The following abbreviations are used in this manuscript:
ACO Ant Colony Optimization
ALO Ant Lion Optimization
AMI Advanced Metering Infrastructure
APSO Accelerated Particle Swarm Optimization
BA Bat Algorithm
BAPSO Bat Algorithm + Particle Swarm Optimization
BESS Battery Energy Storage System
BMS Battery Management System
DC Direct Current
DG Distributed Generation
EM Energy Management
EMS Energy Management System
ESS Energy Storage System
GWO Grey Wolf Optimization
HVAC Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning
Sustainability 2022, 14, 14794 21 of 30

ILS Intelligent Load Shedder

LPNN Lagrange Programming Neural Networks
LSA Lightning Search Algorithm
MILP Mixed-integer Linear Programming
MINLP Mixed-integer Nonlinear Programming
MPO Mimosa Pudica Optimization
NN Neural Network
NSWOA Non-dominated Sorting Whale Optimization Algorithm
PMSG Permanent Magnetic Synchronous Generator
PSO Particle Swarm Optimization
RER Renewable Energy Resources
RSOC Reversible Solid Oxide Cell
SOFC Solid Oxide Fuel Cell
SFOA Sunflower Optimization Algorithm

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