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Topic 6 - Inheritance, Variation

and Evolution
Reproduction
Sexual and asexual reproduction
In sexual reproduction there is mixing of genetic information which leads to
variety in the offspring. The formation of gametes involves meiosis.
Fusion of Two Gametes ⇒ Zygote ⇒ Two offspring that are genetically different
In plants these two gametes are pollen and egg cells whereas in Animals they are
sperm and egg cells.
Fertilisation is the fusion of gamete nuclei and this causes variation.

Gametes are formed by meiosis

Asexual reproduction involves only one parent and no fusion of gametes.
There is no mixing of genetic information. This leads to genetically identical
offspring (clones). Only mitosis is involved.

One parent ⇒ Splits into two offspring that are genetically identical clones
Only mitosis is involved in asexual reproduction

Meiosis
Meiosis halves the number of chrtomosomes in gametes and fertilisation
restores the full number of chromosomes.

When a cell divides to form gametes:

Copies of genetic information are made

the cell divides twice to form four gametes, each with a single set of
chromosomes

all gametes are genetically different from each other

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 In meiosis the cells go from diploid cells to haploid cells as the amount of
chromosomes halves and only returns to normal at fertilisation

Meiosis is needed as:

It produces gametes for fertilisation

Increases genetic variation

Pros and Cons of Sexual and asexual reproduction

Sexual Reproduction

Asexual Reproduction

Malarial parasites

Malaria is caused by parasites that are carried by mosquitoes

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 The parasites are transferred to a human when the mosquito feeds on the
human’s blood

These malarial parasites reproduce asexually in the human host, but sexually
in the mosquito

Fungi

Many fungi reproduce both asexually and sexually

These species of fungi release spores, which develop into new fungi

These spores can be produced via asexual or sexual reproduction

Spores that are produced via sexual reproduction show variation (they are
genetically different from each other)

Plants

Many plants produce seeds via sexual reproduction but are also able to reproduce
asexually

They reproduce asexually in different ways:

Some plants (eg. strawberry plants) produce ‘runners’ (stems that grow
horizontally away from the parent plant, at the end of which new identical
offspring plants form)

Some plants (eg. daffodils) reproduce via bulb division (new bulbs form
from the main bulb underground and then grow into new identical offspring
plants)

DNA and the genome

The genetic material in the nucleus of a cell is composed of a chemical called
DNA is a polymer made up of two strands forming a double helix. The DNA is
contained in structures called chromosomes

DNA is short for DeoxyriboNucleic Acid.

A gene is a small section of DNA on a chromosome. Each gene codes for a

particular sequence of amino acids, to make a specific protein.

Genes control our characteristics as they code for proteins which play a role in what
our cells do

The genome of an organism is the entire genetic material of the organism. The
whole human genome has now been studied and this will have a great

Topic 6 - Inheritance, Variation and Evolution 3

 importance for medicine in the future.

From a medical perspective this is important as it will continue to improve our

understanding of genes that cause different diseases and inherited genetic
disorders

It will also help us study human migration patterns over time as human genomes
are almost identical but have minor changes in separate bases

DNA Structure
DNA is a polymer made from four different nucleotides. Each nucleotide
consists of a common sugar and phosphate group with one of 4 different
bases attached to the sugar.

DNA contains 4 bases, A(denine), C(ytosine), G(uanine) and T(hymine).

Topic 6 - Inheritance, Variation and Evolution 4

 A sequence of three bases ist the code for a particular amino acid. The order
of bases controls the order in which amino acids are assembled to produce a
particular protein.

Protein Synthesis
Process of Protein Synthesis

DNA is unwind within the nucleus and the matching base pairs are transcribed
onto an mRNA strand (Bases change from A→U, C→G, G→C and T→A)

mRNA then moves out of the nucleus to a ribosome

The ribosome connects every 3 bases on the mRNA (known as a codon) to a

anti-codon (specifically made to match complementary bases together) which is
joined to a tRNA which is also linked a different amino acid

These amino acids link up to form a chain which is then released and folds up
into a protein

Proteins

Proteins can fulfil 3 main functions:

Act as Enzymes - Biological catalysts to speed up chemical reactions

Hormones - Used to carry messages around the body

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 Structural Proteins - Made to help strengthen tissues around the body

Mutations
Mutations occur continuously. Most do not alter the protein, or only after it
slightly so that its appearance or function is not changed
A few mutations code for an altered protein with a different shape. An enzyme
may no longerfit the substrate binding site or a structural protein may lose its
length

Not all parts of DNA code for proteins Non-coding parts of the DNA can switch
genes on and off, so variations in these areas of DNA may affect how genes
are expressed
There are 3 main mutations:

Insertions - A new base randomly is inserted between two bases

This affects all the amino acids that are going to be coded for after the
location of the insertion also including the amino acid coded for by the
inserted base codon

Deletions - A base is deleted shifting all of the bases afterwards back a position

They have a knock on effect throughout all the following bases

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 Substitutions - One base replaces an older base

This replaces an older base and only changes the protein that the replaced
base was coding for

Genetic Inheritance
Students should be able to define:

Gamete - Sex Cells (Sperm and Egg Cells or in plants Pollen and Egg Cells)

Chromosome - Structures of DNA containing genetic information in the form of

genes found in the nucleus

Gene - Short lengths of DNA coding specific proteins

Allele - Different versions of specific genes

Dominant - A dominant allele is expressed even if it is heterozygous present

Recessive - A recessive allele is only expressed in homozygous recessive

Homozygous - If two alleles are the same

Heterozygous - If two alleles are different

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 Genotype - The combination of alleles

Phenotype - The physical characteristic present due to the genotype

Some characteristics are controlled by a single gene, such as: fur colour in
mice; and red-green colour blindness in humans. Each gene may have
different forms called alleles
This is monohybrid inheritance as different alleles can work in sync to produce a
phenotype that displays both alleles
Most characteristics are a result of multiple genes interacting, rather than a
single gene.

This is known as a polygenic characteristic.

To determine characteristics from crossing genes we draw punnet squares and use
the theory of probability

Inherited Disorders
Some disorders are inherited. These disorders caused by the inheritance of
certain alleles.

Polydactyly (having extra fingers or toes) is caused by a dominant allele

Cystic Fibrosis (a disorder of cell membranes) is caused by recessive

allele

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 Polydactyly and Cystic Fibrosis

Polydactyly -

Cystic Fibrosis -

Students should make informed judgements about the economic, social and
ethical issues concerning embryo screening (screening for genetic disorders)

For Screening Against Screening

Could imply people with genetic

Social Can avoid suffering for bearer
disorders are unwanted

Treatments costs governments and Embryo screening is very expensive

Economic
tax payers money and is not available to all parents

'Slippery Slope’ Argument - If

There are specific laws to stop the process become more affordable
Ethical
abuse of embryo screening people may abuse it so should it be
allowed?

Sex Determination

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 Variation and Evolution
Variation

Evolution

Selective Breeding

Genetic Engineering

Cloning

The development of understanding of

genetics and evolution
Theory of Evolution

Speciation

The understanding of Genetics

Evidence for evolution

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 Fossils

Extinction

Resistant Bacteria

Classification of living organisms

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