Current Affairs Review

for Environmental
Ecology & Science &
Technology (Book-3)
By Dr. Abhishek Kumar

15. The European Union's Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM) ................... 2

16. Transport Decarbonisation ............................................................................. 4

17. BS-VI Norm Adoption in India ........................................................................ 6

17A. Bharat Emission Norms ............................................................................... 8

18. Crop Residue Management Guidelines 2023 .....................................................10

19. Swachh Vayu Sarvekshan 2023 (Clean Air Survey) Awards ................................12

20. Cloud Seeding ............................................................................................14

21. IUCN Report on Mangroves ...........................................................................16

22. Status of Snow Leopards in India...................................................................20

23. Leopard Census: Numbers Show 8% Rise from 2018 to 2022 .............................24

24. Plastic Treaty Talks 2024 ..............................................................................26

24A. India's Actions and Rationale on Plastic Pollution ............................................28

25. New Rules for Elephant Transfers ...................................................................30

Book 3. Page 1 of 31
15. The European Union's Carbon Border
Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM)
What is CBAM?

The European Union's Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM) is a policy

instrument designed to prevent carbon leakage and promote cleaner industrial production
in non-EU countries. Here are the key points about CBAM, its rationale, mechanism, and
potential impact on India:

Rationale for CBAM

• Preventing Carbon Leakage: The EU aims to prevent carbon leakage, where

companies might shift carbon-intensive production to countries with less stringent
climate policies, thus avoiding EU carbon costs.

• Leveling the Playing Field: CBAM ensures that the carbon price of imports
matches the carbon price of domestic production in the EU, creating a level playing
field for EU industries and preventing undercutting by cheaper, more carbon-
intensive imports.

Mechanism of CBAM

• Scope:

o Initially covers imports of iron and steel, cement, fertilisers,

aluminium, and electricity generation.

o By 2030, it will cover all sectors under the EU Emissions Trading System
(ETS).

• Reporting and Certification:

o From October 2023 to December 2025, importers must report

embedded emissions in their imports.

o From 2026 onwards, importers must purchase CBAM certificates

corresponding to the embedded emissions.

• Pricing:

o The price of CBAM certificates will be linked to the weekly average auction
price of EU ETS allowances, ensuring a consistent carbon price for both
domestic and imported goods.

• Deductions:

o Importers can deduct the carbon price already paid during production in the
exporting country from their CBAM obligations.

Impact on India

• Increased Costs:

o Indian exporters of CBAM-covered goods to the EU may face increased costs

due to the need to purchase CBAM certificates, potentially affecting their
competitiveness in the EU market.

• Incentive for Decarbonisation:

Book 3. Page 2 of 31
 o CBAM may incentivise Indian industries to adopt cleaner production
methods and reduce their carbon footprint to avoid the additional costs of
CBAM certificates.

• Trade Disputes:

o Concerns exist that CBAM could be perceived as a trade barrier, leading to

potential disputes at the World Trade Organisation (WTO) if it is deemed
discriminatory or protectionist.

• Need for Carbon Pricing:

o CBAM may encourage India to consider implementing its own carbon pricing
mechanisms, such as an emissions trading system or carbon tax, to
ensure that Indian exporters can deduct the carbon costs already paid from
their CBAM obligations.

• Support for Green Transition:

o The EU has committed to providing support to developing countries,

including India, in implementing CBAM, greening their industries, and
transitioning to renewable energy sources.

Summary

• Short-term Impact: CBAM may increase costs for Indian exporters in the short
term.

• Long-term Opportunity: It presents an opportunity for India to accelerate its

transition towards a low-carbon economy.

• EU Support: India may benefit from the EU's support for green initiatives in
developing countries.

Book 3. Page 3 of 31
16. Transport Decarbonisation
Introduction

NITI Aayog recently released a report titled “Towards Decarbonising Transport 2023:
A Stocktake on Sectoral Ambition in G20.” This document examines the necessity and
strategies for reducing CO₂ and other greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from India's
transport sector.

Major Carbon Emitting Sectors in India

India's significant carbon-emitting sectors include:

• Power

• Transport

• Iron & Steel

• Construction

• Farming & Animal Rearing

India's CO₂ Emissions Data

India's CO₂ emissions from fuel combustion increased by 330% between 1990 and 2019.
Reducing these emissions is crucial for the country's environmental and economic
sustainability.

Global Emission Patterns

The G20 countries are responsible for more than 80% of current global CO₂ emissions and
almost 70% of global transport emissions. This highlights the importance of international
cooperation in emission reduction efforts.

Importance of Reducing Emissions

Reducing emissions is essential for India due to several reasons:

• Health Benefits: Reduced air pollution leads to better public health.

• Environmental Protection: Lower emissions help combat climate change and

protect ecosystems.

• Economic Efficiency: Cleaner technologies can lead to cost savings and energy
efficiency.

• International Commitments: Meeting global climate goals and enhancing India's

international standing.

Strategies to Reduce Transport Emissions

BS-VI Emission Standards

• The Bharat Stage VI (BS-VI) norms, implemented in April 2020, aim to reduce
vehicular emissions.

• Challenges:

o The Diesel Particulate Filter (DPF) and the Selective Catalytic Reduction
(SCR) technology required for BS-VI vehicles are costly.

o AdBlue (AUS 32) is necessary for diesel vehicles to reduce NOx emissions
but involves additional maintenance.

Book 3. Page 4 of 31
Transition to Electric Vehicles (EVs)

• EVs produce zero tailpipe emissions and can significantly reduce urban air pollution.

• Challenges include high initial costs, inadequate charging infrastructure, and

dependency on the carbon intensity of the electricity used for charging.

Transition to Cleaner Fuels

• Hydrogen: Hydrogen fuel cells produce only water as a byproduct. However, the
production of hydrogen itself must be green (using renewable energy) to be truly
sustainable.

• Compressed Natural Gas (CNG): CNG is a cleaner alternative to petrol and

diesel, with lower CO₂ emissions and reduced particulate matter.

Conclusion

Decarbonising the transport sector is essential for India's environmental health, economic
sustainability, and international commitments. The transition requires a combination of
regulatory measures, technological advancements, and adoption of cleaner fuels and
electric vehicles. Collaborative efforts at national and international levels will be crucial in
achieving these goals.

Book 3. Page 5 of 31
17. BS-VI Norm Adoption in India
Introduction

BS-VI (Bharat Stage VI) emission standards are the latest and the most stringent emission
norms implemented by the Indian government to curb vehicular pollution. The are in force
all over India since 2020.

These standards, equivalent to Euro 6 norms, aim to reduce the emission of pollutants
such as NOx, particulate matter, hydrocarbons, and CO. The adoption of BS-VI norms
involves significant changes in automotive technology, fuel quality, and infrastructure.

Key Components of BS-VI Standards

1. Diesel Particulate Filter (DPF):

o Function: A cylindrical filter mounted inside the engine compartment to

remove particulate matter or soot from diesel exhaust.

o Challenges: Requires temperatures of 600°C, which are difficult to achieve

in Indian conditions. Small cars need major redesigns to accommodate DPF,
leading to space and cost issues.

2. Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR):

o Function: Reduces NOx emissions by injecting aqueous urea solution

(AdBlue or AUS 32) into the exhaust, converting NOx into nitrogen and
water.

o Challenges: Infrastructure for urea refilling is required. Additional costs

and design modifications are needed to incorporate the SCR system in
vehicles.

Emission Reductions

• Diesel Cars:

o BS-IV to BS-VI reduces particulate matter by 80%.

• Heavy Trucks:

o BS-III to BS-IV reduces particulate matter by 50%.

o BS-IV to BS-VI further reduces particulate matter by 50%.

Global Auto Fuel Standards Comparison

• EU: Euro VI norms with 10 ppm sulphur since 2008-09.

• USA: Sulphur content in diesel is 15 ppm; multiple grades of ultra-low sulphur

gasoline.

• Japan: Moved to 10 ppm sulphur fuels for diesel and gasoline in 2008.

• China: Implemented Euro IV and V standards; new regulations for Euro VI

equivalent standards.

• Russia and Thailand: Proposed to reduce sulphur limits to 10 ppm.

Challenges in BS-VI Adoption in India

1. Technical Modifications:

Book 3. Page 6 of 31
 o Integration of DPF and SCR requires significant changes in vehicle design,
especially for small cars.

o High costs associated with these modifications impact vehicle pricing.

2. Infrastructure Requirements:

o Establishment of urea refilling stations for SCR systems.

o Ensuring the availability of BS-VI compliant fuel across the country.

3. Economic Impact:

o Increased production costs for manufacturers.

o Higher vehicle prices for consumers.

4. Regulatory Compliance:

o Strict adherence to emission standards is essential.

o Continuous monitoring and upgrading of vehicle emission systems.

Benefits of BS-VI Norms

• Reduction in Pollutants:

o Significant decrease in NOx, particulate matter, hydrocarbons, and CO

emissions.

• Improved Air Quality:

o Lower emission levels contribute to better air quality, especially in urban

areas.

• Health Benefits:

o Reduced air pollution leads to lower incidence of respiratory and

cardiovascular diseases.

• Environmental Protection:

o Decreased vehicular emissions contribute to the reduction of greenhouse

gases and overall environmental conservation.

Conclusion

The adoption of BS-VI norms in India is a crucial step towards mitigating vehicular pollution
and improving air quality. Despite the challenges related to technology, infrastructure, and
costs, the long-term benefits for public health and the environment make it a necessary
and commendable initiative. Continuous efforts in upgrading technology and infrastructure
will ensure the successful implementation of these standards.

Book 3. Page 7 of 31
17A. Bharat Emission Norms
Bharat Stage Emission Norms

Overview: The Bharat Stage (BS) emission norms are emission standards instituted by
the Government of India to regulate the output of air pollutants from internal combustion
engine equipment, including motor vehicles. These standards are based on the European
regulations and have been implemented in a phased manner to improve air quality and
reduce vehicular pollution in India.

Chronological Development of Bharat Stage Emission Norms

Introduction and Early Developments:

• 29 April 1999: The Supreme Court of India mandated that all vehicles meet Euro
I or India 2000 norms by 1 June 1999, with Euro II standards to be enforced in the
National Capital Region (NCR) from April 2000. The implementation of Euro II was
later deferred.

• 2000: The primary emission standards, known as ‘Bharat Stage’ (BS), were
introduced as ‘Asian Nation 2000’ norms.

• 2001: The second iteration of the emission norms, BSII (BS2), was introduced.

Mashelkar Committee and National Auto Fuel Policy:

• 2002: The government accepted the report from the Mashelkar committee, which
proposed a road map for Euro-based emission norms and recommended phased
implementation.

• 2003: The National Auto Fuel policy was announced, outlining the road map for BS
norms until 2010. It included guidelines for reducing pollution from older vehicles
and promoting R&D for air quality data creation and health administration.

Subsequent Iterations and Enforcement:

• 2005: The third iteration, BSIII (BS3), was introduced.

• October 2010: BSIII norms were enforced across the country.

• April 2010: BSIV norms were implemented in 13 major cities.

• 2017: BSIV norms were extended to the entire country, leading to the fast-tracking
of BSVI (BS6) norms and skipping BSV (BS5).

Fast-Tracking and Recent Developments:

• 2016: The government announced that India would skip BSV norms and adopt
BSVI norms by 2020.

• 15 November 2017: The Union petroleum ministry decided to advance the date
for BS-VI grade auto fuels in the NCT of Delhi to 1 April 2018.

• 1 April 2019: The ministry asked Oil Marketing Companies (OMCs) to examine the
possibility of introducing BS-VI auto fuels in the entire NCR area.

• 1 April 2020: The Supreme Court banned the sale and registration of motor
vehicles conforming to BSIV emission standards across the country.

Impact of Regulations:

• Phasing out of 2-stroke engines: The regulations led to the phasing out of 2-
stroke engines for two-wheelers.
Book 3. Page 8 of 31
 • Cessation of production of the Maruti 800: Compliance with the new norms
resulted in the end of production for certain vehicle models like the Maruti 800.

• Introduction of electronic controls: The enforcement of emission standards

necessitated the adoption of advanced electronic control technologies in vehicles.

Regulatory Bodies:

The standards and implementation timelines are set by the Central Pollution Control
Board under the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change.

Book 3. Page 9 of 31
18. Crop Residue Management Guidelines
2023
Introduction

Crop residue burning is one of the most serious factors contributing to deteriorating air
quality in the northern parts of India every year. This practice results in significant air
pollution, adversely affecting public health and the environment.

In this regard, new Crop Residue Management Guidelines 2023 have been released.

Objectives

• Environmental Protection: Prevent air pollution and loss of soil nutrients and
microorganisms caused by burning crop residues.

• Promote Management: Encourage the retention/incorporation of crop residues

into the soil and establish supply chains for further utilization.

• Awareness and Education: Create awareness among stakeholders through

demonstrations, capacity-building activities, and information campaigns.

Strategies

• In-Situ Management: Use machines like Super Straw Management

Systems, Happy Seeder, Super Seeder, and others to manage crop residues
on-site.

• Ex-Situ Management: Establish supply chains for collecting, densifying, storing,

and transporting crop residues to industries that can utilise them, such as biomass
power plants and biofuel production units.

Financial Assistance

• Individual Farmers: Financial assistance of 50% of the cost for purchasing crop
residue management machines.

• Custom Hiring Centres (CHCs): Financial assistance of 80% of the project cost
for setting up CHCs, which provide machinery for crop residue management to
farmers on a rental basis.

• Supply Chain Establishment: Financial assistance for the capital cost of

machinery and equipment required for the collection, baling, transportation, and
storage of crop residues.

Implementation

• Annual Action Plan: State governments of Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh,

Madhya Pradesh, and NCT of Delhi must submit a comprehensive Annual Action
Plan (AAP) for crop residue management.

• Monitoring and Evaluation: Implementing agencies will monitor the outcomes

of training programmes and the adoption of technologies.

• Information, Education, and Communication (IEC): Mass awareness

campaigns through various media, mobilisation of schools and colleges, and special
programmes for sensitisation.

Key Interventions

Book 3. Page 10 of 31
 • Financial Assistance for Machinery: Subsidies for individual ownership and
CHCs.

• Supply Chain Development: Establishing infrastructure for the collection, baling,

and transportation of crop residues.

• Awareness Campaigns: Use of electronic, print, and social media, as well as

community engagement activities to promote crop residue management practices.

These guidelines aim to reduce the environmental impact of crop residue burning and
promote sustainable agricultural practices through financial incentives, infrastructure
development, and widespread awareness campaigns.

Book 3. Page 11 of 31
19. Swachh Vayu Sarvekshan 2023 (Clean
Air Survey) Awards
Introduction

The Swachh Vayu Sarvekshan 2023 awards, announced by Union Environment, Forest and
Climate Change Ministry, ranked cities based on air quality and the implementation of
activities to improve it. Conducted by the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB), the
survey categorized cities into three groups based on population size using the 2011
population census.

Top-Ranked Cities

Million-Plus Population Cities

• Indore, Madhya Pradesh - Secured the first rank.

• Agra, Uttar Pradesh - Secured the second rank.

• Thane, Maharashtra - Secured the third rank.

Population Between 300,000 to 1 Million

• Amravati, Maharashtra - Secured the first rank.

• Moradabad, Uttar Pradesh - Secured the second rank.

• Guntur, Andhra Pradesh - Secured the third rank.

Population Less Than 300,000

• Parwanoo, Himachal Pradesh - Secured the first rank.

• Kala Amb, Himachal Pradesh - Secured the second rank.

• Angul, Odisha - Secured the third rank.

Worst Performers

Million-Plus Population Cities

• Madurai (46th)

• Howrah (45th)

• Jamshedpur (44th)

Population Between 300,000 to 1 Million

• Jammu (38th)

• Guwahati (37th)

• Jalandhar (36th)

Population Less Than 300,000

• Kohima (39th)

Assessment Criteria The cities were evaluated on eight major points:

• Control of biomass burning (20%)

• Municipal solid waste burning (20%)

• Road dust (20%)

Book 3. Page 12 of 31
 • Dust from construction and demolition waste (5%)

• Vehicular emissions (20%)

• Industrial emissions (10%)

• Public awareness (2.5%)

• Improvement in PM10 concentration (2.5%)

Background and Initiatives

Swachh Vayu Sarvekshan An initiative under the National Clean Air Programme
(NCAP), launched by the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC),
aims to systematically address air pollution by engaging all stakeholders. The NCAP targets
a reduction in the concentration of coarse (PM10) and fine particles (PM2.5) by at least
20% over five years. The "PRANA" portal has been launched to monitor the implementation
of NCAP and share best practices among cities.

Objectives of Swachh Vayu Sarvekshan

• To create awareness among all sections of society.

• Inform citizens about the health impacts related to exposure.

• Compare air quality conditions at different locations/cities.

• Achieve NCAP goal "Clean Air for All".

Implementation and Monitoring All 131 cities covered under NCAP are required to do
the self-assessment as per the framework provided on the PRANA online portal. The
reports and documents are further vetted by the respective Air Quality Monitoring
Committee (AQMC), chaired by the Principal Secretary Environment, and examined and
evaluated by CPCB for ranking.

Results and Rewards The top three cities in each category are rewarded with a cash
prize, trophy, and certificate. The survey results highlight the efforts of cities like Indore,
which has consistently performed well in various cleanliness and air quality initiatives,
reflecting a broader commitment to environmental sustainability and public health.

Book 3. Page 13 of 31
20. Cloud Seeding
Introduction

• Cloud seeding is a weather modification technique aimed at enhancing a cloud's

ability to produce precipitation, such as rain or snow. This involves introducing
substances into the atmosphere that act as cloud condensation or ice nuclei,
facilitating the formation of precipitation.

Working Principle of Cloud Seeding

• Cloud seeding is based on the principle of nucleation, where substances

like silver iodide or dry ice are used to create nuclei around which moisture in
the cloud can condense. These nuclei help in forming ice crystals or water droplets,
which then grow and precipitate as rain or snow. This process leverages the natural
tendencies of supercooled clouds and the physical properties of the seeding agents
to induce precipitation.

Mechanism of Cloud Seeding

1. Introduction of Nuclei

o Substances like silver iodide, potassium iodide, or dry ice are dispersed
into the cloud either from aircraft or ground-based generators.

o Silver iodide is commonly used because its crystalline structure is similar to

that of ice, making it effective in inducing freezing nucleation.

2. Formation of Ice Crystals

o In supercooled clouds (clouds with temperatures below freezing but still

containing liquid water), the introduced nuclei help form ice crystals.

3. Growth of Ice Crystals

o These ice crystals grow by attracting more water vapour, which condenses
onto them.

4. Precipitation

o Once the ice crystals become heavy enough, they fall as precipitation (rain
or snow) to the ground.

Methods of Cloud Seeding

• Static Seeding

o Targets supercooled clouds to form ice particles, which grow and fall as
precipitation.

• Dynamic Seeding

o Aims to enhance convective cloud development by releasing latent heat,

strengthening updrafts and promoting cloud growth.

Dispersion Techniques

• Aircraft

o Disperses seeding agents directly into clouds.

• Ground-Based Generators

Book 3. Page 14 of 31
 o Releases seeding agents from the ground, which are then carried into the
clouds by air currents.

• Drones and Electric Charges

o Newer methods include using drones to deliver electric charges to air

molecules, stimulating rainfall.

Advantages of Cloud Seeding

1. Increased Precipitation

o Enhances rainfall or snowfall, beneficial for agriculture, water supply,

and hydroelectric power generation. Long-term projects have shown
increases in snowfall by up to 15% in some regions.

2. Drought Mitigation

o Used to alleviate drought conditions by increasing the amount of

precipitation in affected areas.

3. Hail Suppression

o Reduces the size of hailstones, minimising damage to crops and property.

4. Fog Dispersal

o Helps disperse fog, improving visibility around airports and reducing

transportation delays.

Disadvantages of Cloud Seeding

1. Effectiveness

o The effectiveness is still debated. Some studies show modest increases in

precipitation, while others find no statistically significant impact.

2. Environmental Concerns

o Although the concentrations of seeding agents like silver iodide are low,
there are concerns about their accumulation in sensitive ecosystems over
time.

3. Cost

o Cloud seeding operations can be expensive, requiring specialised equipment

and ongoing monitoring.

4. Unintended Consequences

o Potential for unintended consequences, such as excessive rainfall leading to

flooding or mudslides, as experienced in Oregon in the 1970s.

5. Legal and Ethical Issues

o Raises legal and ethical questions, particularly regarding the ownership and
regulation of weather modification activities.

Conclusion

• Cloud seeding is a promising but complex technique for weather modification with
both potential benefits and drawbacks. Its effectiveness varies depending on
specific conditions and methods used. Ongoing research is needed to fully
understand its impacts and optimise its use.

Book 3. Page 15 of 31
21. IUCN Report on Mangroves
Key Findings of the Study

• General Overview

o The IUCN's "Red List of Mangrove Ecosystems" marks the first

comprehensive global assessment of mangroves.

o The report was unveiled on International Day for Biodiversity (22nd May).

• Risk Assessment

o Global Threats

 Over 50% of the world's mangrove ecosystems are at risk of

collapse, classified as either vulnerable, endangered, or critically
endangered.

 Nearly 1 in 5 mangrove ecosystems face severe risk.

 One-third of the world's mangrove ecosystem provinces will be

severely affected by sea-level rise.

 25% of the global mangrove area is predicted to be submerged in

the next 50 years.

o Regional Risks

 South Indian Mangroves

 Categorised as "critically endangered".

 Bay of Bengal and Western Coast Mangroves

 Classified as "least concerned".

• Major Threats

o Climate Change

 The primary threat, affecting 33% of mangroves globally.

 Leads to increased frequency and intensity of cyclones, typhoons,

hurricanes, and tropical storms.

o Other Threats

 Deforestation, development, pollution, and dam construction.

• Global Impact

o Significant impacts predicted for coasts along the Northwest Atlantic, North
Indian Ocean, Red Sea, South China Sea, and Gulf of Aden.

o Without increased conservation, about 7,065 sq km (5%) more mangroves

could be lost, and 23,672 sq km (16%) will be submerged by 2050.

Status of Mangrove Cover in India

• General Information

o Mangroves are dense forests of salt-tolerant trees and shrubs found in

tropical and subtropical regions, thriving in intertidal zones.

• Mangrove Cover

Book 3. Page 16 of 31
 o Global and Regional Distribution

 40% of the world's mangrove cover is in South East Asia and South
Asia.

 India has about 3% of the total mangrove cover in South Asia.

o Current Status in India

 India’s mangrove cover is 4,975 sq km, 0.15% of the country's total

geographical area.

 West Bengal has the largest share (42.45%), followed by Gujarat

(23.66%) and Andaman & Nicobar Islands (12.39%).

 South 24 Parganas district in West Bengal accounts for 41.85% of

India’s mangrove cover, including the Sundarbans National Park.

 Gujarat has shown the maximum increase of 37 sq km in mangrove

cover.

 India’s mangrove cover has increased by 54 sq km (1.10%)

compared to the previous assessment.

India’s Initiatives Related to Mangrove Conservation

• Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ) Notification (2019)

o Classifies coastal areas into four categories.

o Restricts activities that could damage mangroves, such as dumping waste,

industrial activities, and land reclamation.

• Central Sector Scheme on 'Conservation and Management of Mangroves

and Coral Reefs'

o Provides financial assistance to coastal states and union territories.

o Supports action plans including surveying, alternative livelihoods, and

awareness campaigns.

• Mangrove Initiative for Shoreline Habitats & Tangible Incomes (MISHTI)

o Launched in the 2023-24 Union Budget.

o Aims to increase mangrove cover along the coastline and on degraded lands.

• Other Relevant Acts

o Indian Forest Act, 1927: Legal protection for mangroves designated as

Reserved Forests.

o Wildlife Protection Act, 1972: Protection for mangrove areas crucial for
wildlife.

o Additional Laws: Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974

and Maharashtra Tree (Felling) Act, 1972 regulate activities that could
damage ecosystems.

Significance of Mangrove Ecosystems

• Biodiversity Conservation

o Provide habitat for diverse plant and animal species, serving as breeding,
nursery, and feeding grounds.

Book 3. Page 17 of 31
 o Example: Sundarban hosts the Royal Bengal tiger, Irrawaddy Dolphin,
Rhesus macaque, and other species.

• Coastal Protection

o Act as natural buffers against erosion, storm surges, and tsunamis.

o Dense root systems stabilise shorelines and reduce the impact of waves.

• Carbon Sequestration

o Efficient carbon sinks, storing carbon dioxide in biomass and sediments.

• Fisheries and Livelihoods

o Support fisheries by providing nursery areas for fish and shellfish.

o Enhance fishery productivity and contribute to local food security.

• Water Quality Improvement

o Act as natural filters, removing pollutants and excess nutrients from coastal
waters.

• Tourism and Recreation

o Offer recreational opportunities, promoting sustainable economic growth.

Challenges Faced by Mangrove Ecosystems

• Habitat Destruction and Fragmentation

o Cleared for agriculture, urbanisation, aquaculture, and infrastructure

development.

o Conversion into shrimp farms and other commercial uses.

• Climate Change and Sea Level Rise

o Rising sea levels and extreme weather events pose significant threats.

• Pollution and Contamination

o Pollution from agricultural runoff, industrial discharges, and improper waste

disposal.

• Lack of Integrated Management

o Often managed in isolation without considering interconnected ecosystems.

• Overfishing and Unsustainable Harvesting

o Reduces ecological and economic value.

• Invasive Species

o Non-native species can outcompete native ones and alter ecosystems.

• Lack of Awareness and Protection

o Mangroves are undervalued and lack legal protection.

Measures for Protecting Mangrove Ecosystems

• Cracking Down on Harmful Activities

o Implement stricter laws and enhance enforcement to prevent harmful

activities.

Book 3. Page 18 of 31
• Mangrove Adoption Program

o Public-driven program for individuals and institutions to "adopt" sections of

mangroves.

• Mangrove Research and Development

o Invest in research to explore novel applications of mangroves.

• Empowering Local Communities

o Involve local communities in conservation efforts and create sustainable

livelihood opportunities.

• Bio-Restoration Techniques

o Utilise bio-restoration to revive degraded areas and maintain biodiversity.

• Diverse Species in Restoration Efforts

o Include a variety of mangrove species in restoration to enhance resilience.

Book 3. Page 19 of 31
22. Status of Snow Leopards in India
Snow Leopard: Key Facts

• Common Name: Snow Leopard

• Scientific Name: Panthera uncia

• Population: Estimated between 400 to 700 snow leopards in India. A nationwide

population assessment is underway.

• Height: Approximately 60 cm

• Length: 100 - 130 cm

• Weight: 35-40 kg; Males: 45-55 kg

• Status: Listed as Vulnerable on the IUCN-World Conservation Union’s Red

List. Listed as Schedule I species under the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972.

• Unique Characteristic: Snow leopards do not roar.

Snow Leopard: The Ghost of the Mountains

• Introduction

o The snow leopard is a strikingly beautiful and mysterious cat, highly adapted
to life on the cold, rocky slopes of High Asia.

o Due to its elusive nature, it is known as the 'ghost of the mountains'.

• Ecological Significance

o The snow leopard is an icon of High Asia's critical landscapes, which house
diverse high-altitude species and provide essential ecosystem services for
hundreds of millions.

o Over 330 million people live within 10 km of rivers originating in snow

leopard habitats, directly benefiting from these water sources.

• Habitat and Population

o Snow leopards roam vast mountainous terrains, with individual home ranges
stretching from 200 to 2000 km².

o Accurate population numbers are difficult to determine, with estimates

ranging from 400 to 700 individuals in India.

Conservation Efforts

• Government Initiatives

o The Government of India has identified the snow leopard as a flagship

species for the high-altitude Himalayas, initiating a conservation project in
2011.

o The centrally-supported Project Snow Leopard aims to conserve the

species and its habitats.

o The Snow Leopard Population Assessment in India (SPAI) is currently

being conducted by the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate
Change (MoEFCC).

Threats and Solutions

Book 3. Page 20 of 31
 • Conflicts over Livestock Predation

o Snow leopards prey on livestock, causing economic loss and conflicts with
pastoral communities, often leading to retaliatory killings.

o Proposed Solution: A multipronged approach to reduce and offset

livestock losses and improve the social carrying capacity of local
communities to coexist with snow leopards.

• Depletion of Wild Prey

o The abundance of snow leopards is determined by the density and

distribution of wild ungulates, which have declined due to competition with
livestock, hunting, and habitat degradation.

o Proposed Solution: Augmenting the wild ungulate prey of snow leopards

is critical for their long-term conservation.

• Illegal Trade

o Snow leopards are poached for their pelts, bones, and body parts, in
demand for traditional Asian medicines.

o Proposed Solution: Enhanced detection and prevention of snow leopard

poaching, community stewardship, and greater cooperation between
national and international agencies.

• Impacts of Climate Change

o Rising temperatures in the snow leopard range cause habitat shrinkage,

rangeland degradation, and severe weather events.

o Proposed Solution: Implementing climate adaptation strategies for

improved natural resource management and enhanced ecosystem
resilience.

• Disease of Snow Leopards and Wild Ungulates

o Snow leopards and wild ungulates suffer from various diseases exacerbated
by overlap with livestock.

o Proposed Solution: Adopting a One-Health approach combining human,

wildlife, and ecosystem health to prevent emerging infectious diseases.

• Linear Infrastructure and Resource Extraction

o Rapid infrastructure development and resource extraction fragment snow

leopard habitats, increase poaching, and disrupt species movement.

o Proposed Solution: Proper planning and implementation of developmental

projects and regulation of resource extraction.

Introduction to the Latest Census

• Report Release

o The Status of Snow Leopards in India report was released in February

2024.

o The SPAI Program reported a population of 718 snow leopards in India.

o Coordinated by the Wildlife Institute of India (WII) with support from

snow leopard range states and conservation partners like the Nature
Conservation Foundation, Mysuru, and WWF-India.
Book 3. Page 21 of 31
Methodology

• Coverage and Participants

o The SPAI covered over 70% of the potential snow leopard range in India,
involving forest and wildlife staff, researchers, volunteers, and knowledge
partners.

o Conducted from 2019 to 2023, the assessment used a two-step framework:

evaluating snow leopard spatial distribution and estimating abundance using
camera traps in stratified regions.

Survey Efforts and Findings

• Survey Details

o The SPAI involved 13,450 km of trails surveyed for snow leopard signs and
camera traps deployed at 1,971 locations for 180,000 trap nights.

o Snow leopard occupancy was recorded in 93,392 km², with an estimated

presence in 100,841 km².

o A total of 241 unique snow leopards were photographed.

• State-wise Population Estimates

o Ladakh: 477

o Uttarakhand: 124

o Himachal Pradesh: 51

o Arunachal Pradesh: 36

o Sikkim: 21

o Jammu and Kashmir: 9

Historical Context

• Past Assessments

o Until recent years, the snow leopard range in India was undefined due to a
lack of extensive nationwide assessments.

o Before 2016, approximately one-third of the range received minimal

research attention.

o Recent status surveys have significantly increased understanding, providing

preliminary information for 80% of the range.

Future Directions

• Proposed Establishment

o The report proposes establishing a dedicated Snow Leopard Cell at WII

under the MoEFCC.

o This cell will focus on long-term population monitoring, supported by well-

structured study designs and consistent field surveys.

• Periodic Population Estimation

o States and UTs are encouraged to adopt a periodic population estimation

approach every fourth year in the snow leopard range.

Book 3. Page 22 of 31
o Regular assessments will offer valuable insights for identifying challenges,
addressing threats, and formulating effective conservation strategies.

Book 3. Page 23 of 31
23. Leopard Census: Numbers Show 8%
Rise from 2018 to 2022
Introduction

• India’s leopard population increased by 8% from 12,852 in 2018 to 13,874 in

2022, as reported by the Environment Ministry in February 2024.

State-wise Population Data

• Madhya Pradesh: Highest number with 3,907 leopards.

• Maharashtra: 1,985 leopards.

• Karnataka: 1,879 leopards.

• Tamil Nadu: 1,070 leopards.

• Uttarakhand: Reported a 22% decline due to poaching and human-wildlife

conflict.

• Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, and West Bengal: Collective rise of 150% to 349
leopards.

Survey Details

• Covered 20 States of India.

• Focussed on 70% of the expected leopard habitat, primarily in tiger reserves

and protected forest areas.

• Forest surveyors: Travelled 6,41,449 km for carnivore signs and prey

abundance estimation.

• Camera traps: Deployed at 32,803 locations, resulting in 4,70,81,881

photographs.

Habitat and Behaviour

• Protected Areas: About a third of leopards are within protected areas.

• Habitat Conservation: Conservation of tiger reserves also conserves leopard

habitats.

• Adaptability: Unlike tigers, leopards are adaptable and often found in villages and
cities.

• Human-Wildlife Conflict: Leopards prey on cattle, leading to conflicts and higher

mortality.

Regional Trends

• Shivalik Hills and Gangetic Plains: Recorded a 3.4% yearly decline.

• Central India and Eastern Ghats: Growth of 1.5% per annum.

• Western Ghats: Growth of 1% per annum.

• Northeast Hills and Brahmaputra Flood Plains: Growth of 1.3% per annum.

• Ramnagar Forest Division (Uttarakhand): Decline in leopard numbers but

steep growth in tiger numbers.

• Shivalik Landscape: 65% of the leopard population is outside protected areas.

Book 3. Page 24 of 31
 • Uttar Pradesh: Increase in both leopard and tiger numbers.

Analysis and Findings

• The analysis was coordinated by the Wildlife Institute of India and only included
forest areas surveyed similarly in 2018.

• The report indicates a stable population over the last four years with minimal
growth compared to tigers.

• The sharp rise in leopard numbers in northeastern States is attributed to a

"sampling artefact" due to fewer systematic surveys and cameras in previous years.

Conclusion

• The stable and slightly increasing leopard population highlights the importance of
continued habitat conservation and addressing human-wildlife conflicts to ensure
the protection and growth of this adaptable species.

Book 3. Page 25 of 31
24. Plastic Treaty Talks 2024
Introduction

• The fourth round of Global Plastics Treaty negotiations concluded in Ottawa,

Canada, with limited progress.

• Nearly 192 member countries participated, aiming to draft a legally binding

agreement to end plastic pollution.

Background

• The Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee (INC) was formed in 2022 to

eliminate plastics.

• The committee consists of government representatives tasked with creating a

timeline for eliminating plastic use and production.

Challenges to Plastic Elimination

• Connection with Oil Economies: Plastics are closely linked to the oil economies
of prominent countries.

• Manufacturing Dependence: Vast manufacturing businesses revolve around

making and supplying different grades of plastics.

• Ubiquity and Versatility: Plastics are used in a variety of applications, making

them hard to replace.

• Lack of Alternatives: Affordable, equivalent alternatives to plastics are scarce.

• Environmental Impact: Plastics do not degrade easily, polluting marine and

terrestrial ecosystems and being tough environmental contaminants.

INC-4 Outcomes

• The fourth round did not deliver a timeline to halt primary plastic production.

• Countries agreed to move forward with detailed assessments on:

o Emissions

o Production

o Product Design

o Waste Management

o Problematic and Avoidable Plastics

o Financing

o Just Transition

Future Steps

• Inter-sessional Work: Expert meetings to catalyse agreement on key issues.

• Next Meeting: Scheduled for November 2024 in Busan, South Korea, expected to
be the final round of negotiations.

India's Position

• Opposition to Restrictions: India opposed restrictions on producing primary

plastic polymers, arguing that production reductions exceed UNEA resolutions.

Book 3. Page 26 of 31
 • Chemical Regulation: India highlighted that some chemicals in plastic
manufacturing are already regulated under different conventions.

• Plastic Waste Management Amendment Rules (2021):

o Banned 19 categories of single-use plastics.

o Defined single-use plastics as disposable goods used once and then thrown
away.

o Examples: Plastic cups, spoons, earbuds, decorative thermocol, wrapping or

packaging film for sweet boxes and cigarette packs, and plastic cutlery.

o Exclusions: Plastic bottles (even those less than 200 ml) and multi-layered
packaging boxes (like milk cartons).

o Enforcement: The ban on single-use plastic items is not uniformly enforced

nationally.

Conclusion

• The talks in Ottawa highlighted the complexities and challenges in reaching a global
consensus on plastic production and pollution.

• Continued efforts and negotiations are crucial to achieving a comprehensive and

effective global treaty on plastic pollution.

Book 3. Page 27 of 31
24A. India's Actions and Rationale on
Plastic Pollution
Actions Taken by India

• Plastic Waste Management Amendment Rules (2021):

o Ban on Single-Use Plastics: India implemented a ban on 19 categories of

single-use plastics in 2022.

o Included Items: The ban covers disposable goods such as plastic cups,
spoons, earbuds, decorative thermocol, wrapping or packaging film for
sweet boxes and cigarette packets, and plastic cutlery.

o Excluded Items: The ban does not include plastic bottles (even those less
than 200ml) and multi-layered packaging boxes (like those used for milk
cartons).

Current Position in Global Negotiations

• Regulation Over Elimination:

o India favours "regulating" rather than completely eliminating single-use

plastics.

o Zero Draft Proposal: India has supported language in the negotiating

document that suggests regulation instead of outright banning the
production, sale, import, and export of problematic and avoidable plastic
goods.

o Science-Based Criteria: India agrees to use science-based criteria for

identifying problematic plastics.

Rationale Behind India's Position

• Expert Committee Recommendations:

o The ban was influenced by a report from an expert committee constituted

by the Department of Chemicals and Petrochemicals, which evaluated
plastic goods based on their utility and environmental impact.

o The current ban addresses only about 11% of single-use plastic in India.

• Economic Considerations:

o Plastic production is central to India's economy, influencing the country’s

stance on regulation over outright bans.

o Global Context: Similar to other major oil, gas, and plastic-producing

nations, India’s position is influenced by its economic interests and the
importance of plastics to its industrial sector.

Challenges and Issues

• Implementation Gaps:

o Enforcement of the ban on single-use plastics is not uniform across India,

with many outlets continuing to sell banned items.

• International Negotiations:

Book 3. Page 28 of 31
 o Countries are deliberating on various measures to tackle plastic pollution,
including removing problematic products from the market, reducing
production through alternative practices, and redesigning items to meet
sustainable criteria.

o Differing Positions: India, like many countries, has varying positions on

different aspects of the treaty, including waste management, trade, and the
use of alternative plastics.

Global Context

• UNEA Resolution (2022):

o The United Nations Environment Assembly passed a resolution to “end

plastic pollution,” leading to the formation of the Intergovernmental
Negotiating Committee (INC) tasked with developing a legally binding global
treaty.

• Plastic Production and Environmental Impact:

o Plastic production has doubled in the last 20 years, with 99% of plastics
made from non-renewable hydrocarbons.

o Plastic production, use, distribution, and disposal are significant sources of

greenhouse gas emissions, contributing about 3.4% of the global total in
2019.

Summary

India’s approach to plastic pollution emphasises regulation over outright elimination,

influenced by economic considerations and expert recommendations. Despite
implementing a ban on certain single-use plastics, enforcement remains inconsistent. In
global negotiations, India supports regulating problematic plastics based on science-based
criteria, balancing environmental concerns with economic interests.

Book 3. Page 29 of 31
25. New Rules for Elephant Transfers
Background

• Wildlife Protection Act, 1972: Elephants are listed as a Schedule 1 species,

making their capture or trade illegal.

• Section 12: Allows translocation for education, research, population management,

and collection for zoos/museums.

• Captive Elephants: Historically used in forest management, timber transport,

royal estates, and temples, subject to strict transfer rules.

Previous Provisions

• Section 40 (2): Prohibited acquisition, possession, and transfer of captive

elephants without written permission from the Chief Wildlife Warden.

• Pre-2021: Explicitly prohibited commercial transactions of captive elephants.

• Amendment in 2021: Allowed transfers for "religious or any other purposes,"

raising concerns about potential trafficking and illegal transactions.

Updated Rules

• Captive Elephant (Transfer or Transport) Rules, 2024: Liberalises conditions

for transferring elephants within or between States.

Conditions for Transfer

• Within State:

o Health certification by a veterinarian.

o Suitability of current and prospective habitats verified by the Deputy

Conservator of Forests.

o Approval by the Chief Wildlife Warden.

• Between States:

o Genetic profile registration with the Ministry of Environment, Forest

and Climate Change.

o Permissions required only from the originating and recipient States, not
from every State en route.

Implications

• Wildlife Protection Act: Primarily aims to prevent wildlife trafficking but has
become more lenient regarding elephants.

• Jamnagar Zoo, Gujarat: India's largest private zoo, affiliated with the Reliance
Foundation, hosts 200 elephants and has raised concerns about sourcing practices
and the presence of wild elephants.

• Controversies: Investigations have questioned whether all elephants in the facility

are captive or if some are sourced from the wild.

Conclusion

• The new rules offer flexibility in transferring captive elephants but have sparked
debates on potential risks of trafficking and the adequacy of protections for wild
elephants.

Book 3. Page 30 of 31
Book 3. Page 31 of 31