MODULE-II

PRECAST PRESTRESSED
CONCRETE FOR LARGE SPAN
STRUCTURES
• Prestressed concrete is a modification of reinforced concrete, which not only
eliminates the weakness of concrete in tension but also make it possible to
take full advantage of compressive strength of concrete.

• The term ‘Prestressed concrete’ is applied to those reinforced concrete

members in which concrete is subjected to compressive stresses, before the
externals loads are applied, by inducing tensile stresses in the reinforcement
to counteract tensile stresses in concrete caused (rather will be caused) by
external loads.
• It can be used to produce beams, floors or bridges with a longer span than is
practical with ordinary reinforced concrete. It is often used in commercial and
residential construction as a foundation slab.

• Prestressing tendons (generally of high tensile steel cable or rods) are used to
provide a clamping load which produces a compressive stress that balances the
tensile stress that the concrete compression member would otherwise experience
due to a bending load. Traditional reinforced concrete is based on the use of steel
reinforcement bars, rebars, inside poured concrete.

• Prestressing can be accomplished in three ways: pre-tensioned concrete, and

bonded or unbonded post-tensioned concrete.
Applications

• Prestressed concrete can be applied to almost all concrete constructions where

ordinary reinforced concrete is used.

• But due to high cost of prestressing and better quality of materials used, its use is
made under special conditions, particularly for precast members.

• In addition to structural precast members, viz, joists, beams, slabs, columns,

girders, etc prestressed concrete is used for the framed multi-storeyed block,
such as offices, flats, hotels, hospitals etc where an open flexible plan and
minimum interior columns are desired.

• A large variety of industrial structures, viz. silos, hangers, roof trusses, water
tanks, piles, pipes, transmission poles, nuclear power stations, factories, steel
plants, electric sub stations, etc can also be built in prestressed concrete.
Applications

• Prestressed concrete is the main material for floors in high rise buildings and the
entire containment vessels of nuclear reactors.

• Unbonded post-tensioning tendons are commonly used in parking garages as

barrier cable. Also, due to its ability to be stressed and then de-stressed, it can be
used to temporarily repair a damaged building by holding up a damaged wall or
floor until permanent repairs can be made.

• The advantages of prestressed concrete include crack control and lower

construction costs; thinner slabs—especially important in high rise buildings in
which floor thickness savings can translate into additional floors for the same (or
lower) cost and fewer joints, since the distance that can be spanned by post-
tensioned slabs exceeds that of reinforced constructions with the same thickness.
Applications

• Increasing span lengths increases the usable unencumbered floorspace in

buildings; diminishing the number of joints leads to lower maintenance costs over
the design life of a building, since joints are the major focus of weakness in concrete
buildings.

• The first prestressed concrete bridge in North America was the Walnut Lane
Memorial Bridge in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.

• It was completed and opened to traffic in 1951.

• Prestressing can also be accomplished on circular concrete pipes used for water
transmission. High tensile strength steel wire is helically-wrapped around the
outside of the pipe under controlled tension and spacing which induces a
circumferential compressive stress in the core concrete. This enables the pipe to
handle high internal pressures and the effects of external earth and traffic loads.
Advantages

Following additional advantages due to prestressing have been claimed, when

prestressed concrete is used:
1. The size or dimensions of structural members are reduced, which may increase the
clearances or reduce storey heights.
2. It permits the use of large spans (grater than 30m) with shallow members, even
when heavy loads are encountered.
3. In addition to general advantages, such as excellent fire resistance, low
maintenance costs, elegance, high corrosion resistance, adaptability etc; the
prestressed concrete is found to sustain the effects of impact or shocks, and
vibrations
4. Because of smaller loads due to smaller dimensions being used, there is
considerable saving in cost ofsupporting members and foundations.
5. The prestressing technique has eliminated the weakness of concrete in tension and
hence crack free members of structure are obtained.
6. Because of better materials (i.e. controlled concrete and high tension steel) being
used and nullifying the effect of dead loads, smaller deflections are caused.
Disadvantages

The following are among the disadvantages of prestressed concrete

1. The unit cost of high strength materials being used is higher.

2. Extra initial cost is incurred due to use of prestressing equipment and its
installation.
3. Extra cost for prestressing is also there.
4. Prestressing is uneconomical for short spans and light loads.
Methods of prestressing

The following two methods are commonly used for prestressing:

1. Pre-tensioning method
2. Post-tensioning method
Pre-tensioning Method

In this method, for pre-tensioning the members, the cables or tendons are prestressed
in place in the forms before the concrete is poured.
The long-line process is most commonly used if several members with the same cross-
section and identical tendons are to be cast. The details of this process are given in fig.
(a)Prestressing bed
(b)Details of cables or tendons and
(c)Tension jack
Pre- tensioning method

• This is indeed a precasting method, normally suited to factory made units, in which
the prestressing force is retained by bond between the tendons and the concrete.

• The tendons consisting of small diameter, high tension steel wires are first stretched
or stretched to the desired tension in the forms of hydraulic jacks, and then anchored
at ends.

• Concrete is now poured in the forms or moulds, and the tendons are released from
their anchorages after the concrete has attained a strength of not less than
350kg/sq.m.

• However, the wires or tendons cannot return to their original position due to the
bond with concrete and this induces a compressive force on the member.
Pre- tensioning method

• If the wires are arranged in the lower part of the beam, the compressive force is
eccentric with the result that the beam hogs up and develops stresses opposite to
those that the loads will cause.

• The method is commonly adopted for prestressing for simply supported slabs, joists,
for floor, fence posts, pipes, poles, beams, building frames, railway sleepers etc.

• These members are either pre-tensioned individually by the unit mould method if
the number of units involved is small, or by the long line process if the number of
units is large.
Post- tensioning method

• In this method, for post-tensioning the members, the cables or tendons, or wires are
placed in position before the concrete is poured but the prestressing force is applied
to the cables only after the concrete has completely set and has attained the desired
strength.

• This method is generally used for in-situ concrete. It is particularly suitable for
works which have difficult access, and for heavy structural members, such as bridge
girders.

• In this system, the cables are enclosed in ducts or metal sheets which prevent them
from bonding to concrete. Alternatively, holes are left in the concrete cast at site
through which the cables are subsequently threaded.

• After ensuring that the concrete cast at site has hardened and has attained the
required minimum strength, the tendons or cables are stretched through ducts or
holes by special jacks acting against the end of the site precast member.
Post- tensioning method

• After stretching, the cables are anchored at the ends of concrete member, inducing
compressive stress in it.

• Now, the cement grout, is forced under pressure to fill the space around the cables in
order to prevent their corrosion and improve the overall load-bearing capacity of the
member.

• Sometimes, the duct is formed of an extractable material such as solid or inflatable

rubber, or plastic tubing which is withdrawn after about 12 hours of concreting. The
cables are then placed in the duct.
Unbonded post tensioned concrete

• Unbonded post-tensioned concrete differs from bonded post-tensioning by

providing each individual cable permanent freedom of movement relative to
the concrete.

• To achieve this, each individual tendon is coated with a grease (generally

lithium based) and covered by a plastic sheathing formed in an extrusion
process.

• The transfer of tension to the concrete is achieved by the steel cable acting
against steel anchors embedded in the perimeter of the slab.

• The main disadvantage over bonded post-tensioning is the fact that a cable
can destress itself and burst out of the slab if damaged (such as during
repair on the slab).
Unbonded post tensioned concrete

• The advantages of this system over bonded post-tensioning are:

1. The ability to individually adjust cables based on poor field

conditions (For example: shifting a group of 4 cables around an
opening by placing 2 on each side).
2. The procedure of post-stress grouting is eliminated.
3. The ability to de-stress the tendons before attempting repair work.
 1. Rolls of post-tension cables 2. Pulling anchors for post-tension 3. Pulling anchors for post- 4. Pulling anchors for post-
cables tension cables tension cables

5. Pulling anchors for post- 6. Positioned post-tension cables 7. Post-tension cable ends 8. Post-tension cable ends
tension cables extending from freshly extending from concrete slab
poured concrete

9. Hydraulic jacks for tension 10. Cable conduits in

cables formwork
PORTAL FRAME
Portal frames

• Portal frame construction is a method of building and designing structures,

primarily using steel or steel-reinforced precast concrete although they can also
be constructed using laminated timber such as glulam.
• The connections between the columns and the rafters are designed to be
moment-resistant, i.e. they can carry bending forces.
• They were first developed in the 1960s, and have now become the most common
form of enclosure for spans of 20 to 60 m.
• Because of these very strong and rigid joints, some of the bending moment in
the rafters is transferred to the columns. This means that the size of the rafters
can be reduced or the span can be increased for the same size rafters.
• This makes portal frames a very efficient construction technique to use for wide
span buildings.
Portal frames
• Portal frame construction is therefore typically seen in warehouses, barns and
other places where large, open spaces are required at low cost and a pitched roof is
acceptable.
• Generally portal frames are used for single-story buildings but they can be used
for low-rise buildings with several floors where they can be economic if the floors
do not span right across the building (in these circumstances a skeleton frame,
with internal columns, would be a more economic choice). A typical configuration
might be where there is office space built against one wall of a warehouse.
• Portal frames can be clad with all sorts of material but the most popular solution,
for reasons of economy and speed, is some form of lightweight insulated metal
cladding with cavity masonry work to the bottom 2m of the wall to provide
security and impact resistance. The lightweight cladding would be carried on
sheeting rails spanning between the columns of the portal frames.
Portal frames
• Portal frames can be defined as two-dimensional rigid frames that have the
basic characteristics of a rigid joint between column and beam.

• The main objective of this form of design is to reduce bending moment in the
beam, which allows the frame to act as one structural unit.

• The transfer of stresses from the beam to the column results in rotational
movement at the foundation, which can be overcome by the introduction of a
pin/hinge joint.

• For warehouses and industrial buildings, sloping roof made of purlins and ac
sheet roofing between portals is provided. For assembly halls, portals with R.C
slab roof cast monolithically is used.
SHELL STRUCTURES
• A structural shell is a curved surface structure. It is generally capable
of transmitting loads in more than two directions to support.

• These structures are highly efficient structurally when they are so

shaped, proportioned, and supported that they transmit loads
without bending or twisting. A shell id defined by its middle surface
halfway between its outer surface and inner surface.

• Depending on the geometry of the middle surface, shell may be

classified as:
(i) Dome
(ii)Barrel arch
(iii)Cone
(iv)Hyperbolic paraboloid
PNEUMATIC STRUCTURE
REPORT ON PNEUMATIC
STRUCTURE
(STRUCTURE SYSTEM)
PNEUMATIC STRUCTURE

INTRODUCTION :-

• Pneumatic structure is a membrane which carries load developed from the

tensile stresses.
• Its stabilization is done by pre stressing the membrane either by:-
a) Applying an external force which pulls the membrane taut
b) Internal pressurizing if the membrane is volume enclosing. Such structures are
called “pneumatic structures”
• these structures can create artificial environments adaptable to human use .
• the pneumatic forms are bound to Increase in popularity, owing to the
tremendous freedom they provide to the architects in designing large free
spaces within them.
ORIGIN :-
• The word pneumatic is derived from the greek word “pneuma”(meaning breath of air)
,thus these are the structure which are supported by air.
• “Pneumatic structure” has been used by mankind
for thousand of years. But in the building technology
it was introduced only about 40 years ago.

PRINCIPLE:-
1) Its principle is the use of relatively thin membrane supported by a pressure difference.
2) Through increasing the inside air pressure not only the dead weight of the space
envolpe is balanced, but the membrane is stressed to a point where it cannot be
indented by asymmetrical loading .
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS:-

1) LIGHT WEIGHT:-
1) The weight of the structure as compared to the area it covers is very less
2) the weight of the membrane roof , even when it is stiffened by cables, is very small
3) low air pressure is sufficient to balance it
4) even with spans of more than 100mts, the weight of the structure does not exceed 3kg/square metre .

2) Span :-
• No structure can guarantee to give the spans upto certain limits cable structures are exceptions( cables for
bridges usually).
• For a building, then the limitation is 500 feet span due to its self weight.
• Another advantage over other structures is that, for pneumatic membrane , there is no theoretical maximum
span as determined by strength, elasticity, specific weight or any other property.
• It is hardly possible to span a distance of over 36km. With a steel cables as they would fail because of their
inability to sustain their own weight. But with pneumatics, such spans are quiet possible.

3) safety:- pneumatic structures are safer than any other structure. Otherwise, a proper care should be taken
while establishing
• Accidental circumstances are avoided as they are very light.
• There are warning signals while the release of return valve. Safety factor+ warning time is quiet long as
compared to other structures.
• Pneumatic structures cant be destroyed by fire quickly and totally.

4) THEFT:- It is very safe no body can or pass through a pneumatic structure. If an air bag is cut with a knife/
pin, a bang is produced.

5) HUMAN HEALTH:-IN MOST CASES, PRESSURE OF NOT MORE THAN 80-100mm AND NOT LESS
THAN [Link] man can withstand pressures between 0.20 atm to 3 atm. Therefore no health hazard is
presented by continuous stay in a pneumatic structure.

6) QUICK ERECTION AND DISMANTLING:- Suitable for temporary constructions because they are as easy
to dismantle as to establish.
• 1 [Link]. Of an area can be brought down in 6 hours. And establish in less than 10 hours. The 4 hours
difference is due to establishment of pegs etc.
7) ECONOMY:- It is not expensive where it is used for shifting structures. For permanent structures, it is very
expensive. Otherwise the cost per squre foot of air supported structures is among the lowest for large
span roofs.

8) GOOD NATURAL LIGHT:- Gives good natural light as translucent/transparent plastic sheets are used to
cover air [Link] can even bring the whole sun inside. There is a lot of flexibility in getting sun light(50%-
80%).
TYPES OF PNEUMATIC STRUCTURES:-
These are primary classes of pneumatic structures:- air supported structures and air –inflated structures

AIR–SUPPORTED STRUCTURES:- It consist of a single membrane(enclosing a functionally useful space)

which is supported by a small internal pressure difference. The internal volume of a building air is
consequently at a pressure higher than atmospheric. The air supported structure uses a low positive pressure
to support a membrane over a given area. Air must be supplied constantly because of the continuous leakage,
primarily through the buildings used most often because of:
. Their relatively low cost
. Their simplicity of design and fabrication
AIR – INFLATED STRUCTURE:-

It is supported by pressurized air contained within inflated building element. The internal volume of building
air remains at atmospheric pressure. The pressurized air in the pillow serves only to stabilizing the load
carrying membrane . the covered space is not pressurized .

Advantages of air- inflated / air frame structure :-

. the ability for self support
. The potential to support an attached structure
CLASSIFICATION OF PNEUMATIC STRUCTURES:-
Pneumatic structures can be further subdivided as:-
1)type of differential pressure
2)degree of differential pressure
3)type of surface curvature
4)proportions

1. TYPE OF DIFFRENTIAL PRESSURE:-.

a) Pneumatic structures use either Positive pressure or negative pressure.

b) in (+) pressure system, the membrane is always curved out wards, whereas in
Negative pressure systems the membrane is curved inwards.

c) being curved inwards there is a tendency of water logging & snow accumulation .

d) moreover, negative pressure systems require high supports at the edge or in the centre which makes it more
expensive.
[Link] OF DIFFERNTIAL PRESSURE:-

LOW PRESSURE SYSTEMS -

These systems are provided with Low pressure air ; hence
have to be provided with continuous supply of air.
Eg-air supported structures.

HIGH PRESSURE SYSTEMS -

Used for easy erection & dismantling; The pressure difference
is b/w 2000-7000mm of water pressure (100 to 1000 times)
low pressure Systems. These high pressure air
Inflated systems are either having a single valve system or a
double Valve systems which avoids it’s Collapse.
3. TYPE OF SURFACE CURVATURES:-
These structures can also be classified according to the types of curvature on the outer surface-
a) Single curved
b) Doubly curved in the same direction or synclastics
c) Doubly curved in opposite direction or anticlastic

4. PROPORTIONS:-

On the basis of different proportions, pneumatic structures can be:-

Two dimension of similar size and one larger dimension, eg:-
“tubes”,”masts”,”columns”,”towers”.
Two dimensions of similar size and one
Smaller dimension, eg:- “cushions”,”lenses”,
”Discuss”,”mattresses”.
Three dimensions of similar size,
Eg:- “baloons”,”balls”,”spheres”,
”Bubbles
[Link]:-

Isotropic:- these show the same strength and stretch in all directions.
Examples are:-
• Plastic films:- these are primarily produced from pvc, poly ethylene, polyester, polyamide etc.
• Fabrics:- these may be made of glass fibres or synthetic fibres which are coated in a pvc, polyester or
polyurethene film.
• Rubber membrane:- they are the lightest and most
• Flexible Metal foils:- they possess a very high gas diffusion resistance and high tensile strength . one of the
major problems in the use of metal foils is in need to produce very exact cutting patterns
ANISOTROPIC MATERIALS:-
These do not show the same Strength and stretchability in all directions. They have direction oriented
properties. Examples are:-

Woven fabrics:- they have two main direction of weave.

They can be made of:-
. organic fibres eg:- wool,cotton or silk.
. Mineral fibres eg:- glass fibres.
. Metal fibres eg:- thin steel wires.
. Synthetic fibres eg:- polyamide, polyester and polyvinyle.

Gridded fabric:- these are coarse-weave made of organic mineral or synthetic fibres or metallic networks.
They are particularly used where maximum light Transmission and high strength is required.
Synthetic rubbers:- combination of pastic and rubber.
They can take better wear and tear. They are latest and are more resistant to elongation.
Plastics:- like woven fabrics. Its advantage is that they Have more of tensile strength than normally
manufactured Plastic sheets.
PNEUMATIC STRUCTURES Usages in History:

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND :-

The technology behind pneumatic structures has been long known to

us. Bubbles have aroused people’s curiosity for long.

The more immediate use of pneumatics however lies in baloons and

airships that have graced our skies in the recent past.

In 1922, the oasis theatre in paris sported a pnuematic hollow

roof structure that was rolled into place when it rained.

During world war pneumatic structures played an important role

as ‘radomes’, which housed large radar antennae.

They can create artificial environment adaptable to human use in

any part of the world. Building with pneumatic Roof
FOLDED PLATES
• These structures are comprised of a series of thin planar elements or flat plates
connected to one another along their edges.

• These structures are generally used on long spans specially for roofs.

• These types of constructions derive their economy from their girder action of
the plates and the mutual support they give to one another.

• These plates may be continuous over their supports longitudinally.

• There may be several plates in each bay traversely.

SELL STRUCTURE & FOLDED PLATES ?

•Thin shell is defined as a shell with a thickness which is small compared to its
other dimensions and in which deformations are not large compared to
thickness.

•A primary difference between a shell structure and a plate structure is that, in

the unstressed state, the shell structure has curvature as opposed to plates
structures which are flat.

•Membrane action in a shell is primarily caused by in-plane forces (plane

stress), though there may be secondary forces resulting from flexural
deformations
CELLULAR STRUCTURES
•Technological developments have multiple results in relation to
architecture.

•The ability to observe at the micro level surely falls into this category:
Cells and microbiological structures are offering a whole new world
that can help as develop new spatial relationships and understand
space in a different way.

•And that goes well beyond mere formal explorations.

•Cells of course are displaying unique forms that could be transferred

to architecture, but are also displaying ways of organization,
ecological strategies and extremely efficient structural systems, all of
which can inform architecture in different levels.
SPACE FRAMES
 TENSIONED
FABRIC
STRUCTURES

THE COLUMBUS CENTER

Inner Harbor
Baltimore, Maryland

CLOSED TENSIONED FABRIC STRUCTURE

Tensioned Fabric Structure: A structure where the exterior shell is a fabric material spread over a framework. The fabric is
maintained in tension in all directions to provide stability.

DENVER INTERNATIONAL AIRPORT

PIER SIX PAVILION
Baltimore, Maryland

OPEN STRUCTURE
CHICAGO’S NAVY PIER
COMMON MISCONCEPTIONS

• FABRIC STRUCTURES CANNOT TAKE HEAVY WEATHER CONDITIONS FALSE

• FABRIC IS ELASTIC AND STRETCHES Fabric has a strong tensile strength and
will creep (stretch very slightly) only a few percent over 20 years of use.

ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
• Unique designs • Little to no rigidity

• Lightweight and flexible • Loss of tension is dangerous for stability

• Environmentally sensitive • Thermal values limit use

• High strength weight ratio

TYPES OF FABRIC STRUCTURES
Saddle roof
Mast supported
Arch supported
Point supported
Combinations
SADDLE ROOF
Four or more point system when the fabric is stretched between a set
of alternating high and low points
MAST SUPPORTED
Tent - like structures containing one or more peaks supported by poles
(masts) or a compression ring that connects the fabric to the central
support.
ARCH SUPPORTED
Curved compression members are used as the main supporting elements
and cross arches are used for lateral stability.
ALUMINUM FRAME SUPPORT
COMBINATIONS
Combination of several support types.
COMPONENTS
BASE PLATE

• Connection to concrete foundation pillar

• MAST SUPPORTED
BALE RING / MEMBRANE PLATE

Provide a link between the membrane and

structural elements..
Bale rings are used at the top of conical
shapes.
Membrane plates accept centenary cables
and pin connection hardware.
MEMBRANE
Forms the enclosure of the structure. Connections can be glued or heat welded.
MEMBRANES

PVC coated polyester (polyvinylchloride)

Silicon coated glass

Teflon coated glass P.T.F.E (polytetrafluroethylene)

TYPES OF FABRIC MEMBRANES

PVC
Less expensive
15 to 20 year life span
Easy to erect

SILICON GLASS

Higher tensile strength

Brittle, subject to damage from flexing
30+ year life span
TEFLON GLASS

Similar to silicon glass, less brittle.

SPECIALIZED HARDWARE

Centenary cables at a side

connection

Tripod head with

centenary cables

Extruded section with

membrane plate and centenary
cables

Tensioner
SPECIALIZED HARDWARE
CABLE CLAMPS
WATER DRAINAGE VIA MEMBRANE PLATES
OPEN STRUCTURE
WATER DRAINAGE
CLOSED STRUCTURE
SOLAR BEHAVIOR
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT
Longer life cycles of materials.

Materials can be re-used in form.

Most materials are completely recyclable.

Less impact on site.

Less construction debris after demolition.