What is computer networking?

A computer network is a system of interconnected computing devices—ranging from traditional to cloud-based environments—that communicate
and share resources with one another.

Networking, or computer networking, involves connecting two or more computing devices (for example, desktop computers, laptops, mobile devices,
routers, applications) to enable the transmission and exchange of information and resources.

Key networking components and devices

To fulla network connection point that can receive, send, create or store data. It’s essentially any network device (for example, a computer, printy
understand computer networking, it is essential to review networking components and their functionality, including:

 IP address: An IP address is a unique number assigned to every network device in an Internet Protocol (IP) network. Each IP address
identifies the device’s host network and its location on the network. When one device sends data to another, the data includes a “header”
that consists of the IP addresses of both the sending and receiving devices.
 Nodes: A node is er, modem, bridge or switch) that can recognize, process and transmit information to another network node. Each node
requires some form of identification (such as an IP or MAC address) to receive access to the network.
 Routers: A router is a physical or virtual device that sends data “packets” between networks. Routers analyze the data within packets to
determine the optimal transmission path and use sophisticated routing algorithms to forward data packets until they reach their intended
destination node.
 Switches: A switch is a device that connects network devices and manages node-to-node communication across a network, ensuring that
data packets reach their intended destinations. Unlike routers, which send information between networks, switches send information
between nodes within a network.

Therefore, “switching” refers to how data is transferred between devices on a network. Networks rely on three main types of switching:

o Circuit switching establishes a dedicated data communication path between nodes in a network so that no other traffic can traverse the
same path. Circuit switching ensures that full bandwidth is available during every transmission.
o Message switching sends whole messages from the source node to the destination node, with the message traveling from switch to switch
until it reaches the destination.
o Packet switching involves breaking down data into independent components to make data transmission less demanding of network
resources. With packet switching, packets, instead of entire data streams, travel through the network to their end destination.

 Ports: A port indicates a specific connection between network devices, with each port identified by a unique number. If an IP address is
analogous to a hotel address, then ports are the suites and room numbers. Computers use port numbers to determine which application,
service or process should receive which messages.
 Gateways: Gateways are hardware devices that facilitate communication between two different networks. Routers, firewalls and other
gateway devices use rate converters, protocol translators and other technologies to facilitate internetwork communication between otherwise
incompatible devices.
Types of computer networks

Typically, geographical areas define computer networks. A local area network (LAN) connects computers within a defined physical space, while a
wide area network (WAN) can connect computers across continents. However, networks are also defined by the protocols they use to communicate,
the physical arrangement of their components, how they manage network traffic and the purpose they serve in their respective environments.

The most common and widely used computer network types fall into three broad categories:

 Network types by geographical area

 Network types by transmission medium
 Network types by communication type
Network types by geographical area
The network types in this category are distinguished by the geographical area the network covers.
Local area network (LAN)
A LAN connects computers over a relatively short distance, such as those within an office building, school or hospital. LANs are typically privately
owned and managed.
Wide area network (WAN)
As the name implies, a WAN connects computers across large geographical areas, such as regions and continents. WANs often have collective or
distributed ownership models for network management purposes.
Cloud network
A cloud network is a type of wide-area network (WAN) where networking resources—such as routers, firewalls and switches—are virtualized and
delivered through public or private cloud platforms. Unlike traditional WANs, which depend heavily on physical infrastructure, cloud networks offer
on-demand scalability, automation and global availability. These networks are ideal for businesses running applications in hybrid or multicloud
environments because they allow seamless and secure connectivity between cloud services and on-premises systems.
Software defined wide area network
A software-defined wide area network (SD-WAN) is a virtualized WAN architecture that uses SDN principles to centralize the management of
disconnected WAN networks and optimize network performance. SD-WAN enables an organization to share data and applications across branch
offices, remote workers and authorized devices that span vast geographical distances and multiple telecommunications infrastructures.
Metropolitan area network (MAN)
MANs are larger than LANs but smaller than WANs. Cities and government entities typically own and manage MANs.
Personal area network (PAN)
A PAN serves one person. If a user has multiple devices from the same manufacturer (an iPhone and a MacBook, for instance), it’s likely they've set
up a PAN. The PAN shares and syncs content, text messages, emails, photos and more, across devices.

Network types by transmission medium

Network nodes can send and receive messages by using either wired or wireless links (connections).
Wired networks
Wired network devices are connected by physical wires and cables, including copper wires and Ethernet, twisted pair, coaxial or fiber-optic cables.
Network size and speed requirements typically dictate the choice of cable, the arrangement of network elements and the physical distance between
devices.
Wireless networks
Wireless networks eliminate the need for cables by using infrared, radio or electromagnetic-wave transmission across wireless devices equipped
with built-in antennae and sensors.

Network types by communication type

Computing networks can transmit data by using a range of transmission dynamics, including:
Multipoint networks
In a multipoint network, multiple devices share channel capacity and network links.
Point-to-point networks
Network devices establish a direct node-to-node link to transmit data.
Broadcast networks
On broadcast networks, several interested “parties” (devices) can receive one-way transmissions from a single sending device. Television stations
and radio stations rely on broadcast networks.
Virtual private networks (VPNs)
A VPN is a secure, point-to-point connection between two network endpoints. It establishes an encrypted channel that keeps a user’s identity and
access credentials, as well as any data transferred, inaccessible to hackers.

Network architectures

Computer network architecture establishes the theoretical framework for a computer network, encompassing design principles and communication
protocols.

The primary types of network architectures include:

 Peer-to-peer (P2P) architectures

 Client-server architectures
 Hybrid architectures
Peer-to-peer (P2P) architectures

In a P2P architecture, two or more computers are connected as “peers,” meaning they have equal power and privileges on the network. A P2P
network doesn’t require a central server for coordination. Instead, each computer on the network acts as both a client (a computer that needs to
access a service) and a server (a computer that provides services to clients).

Every peer on the network makes some of its resources available to other network devices, sharing storage, memory, bandwidth and processing
power across the network.

Client-server architectures

In a client-server network, a central server (or group of servers) manages resources and delivers services to client devices on the network. Clients in
this architecture don’t share their resources and interact only through the server. Client-server architectures are often referred to as tiered
architectures due to their multiple layers.

For example, in a corporate environment that uses a client-server architecture, employees (clients) often have access to a central human resources
system (server). This server allows them to manage personal data, submit leave requests and view internal documents.
Hybrid architectures
Hybrid architectures incorporate elements of both the P2P and client-server models. Many businesses require both centralized services (such as
user authentication) and peer-to-peer capabilities (such as local file sharing) to optimize performance and resource use.

Network topology

Whereas architecture represents the theoretical framework of a network, topology refers to the practical implementation of that framework. Network
topology describes the physical and logical arrangement of nodes and links on a network. It includes all hardware (for example, routers, switches,
cables), software (for example, apps, operating systems) and transmission media (for example, wired, wireless connections).

Common network topologies include:

 Bus network topology

  Ring network topology
 Star network topology
 Mesh network topology
Bus topology
In a bus topology, every network node is directly connected to a main cable.
Ring topology
In a ring topology, nodes are connected in a loop, so each device has exactly two neighbors. Adjacent pairs are connected directly, and nonadjacent
pairs are connected indirectly through intermediary nodes.
Star topology
Star network topologies feature a single, central hub through which all nodes are indirectly connected.
Mesh topology

Mesh topologies are more complex, defined by overlapping connections between nodes. There are two types of mesh networks, full mesh and
partial mesh.

In a full mesh topology, every network node connects to every other network node, providing the highest level of network resilience. In a partial mesh
topology, only some network nodes connect, typically those nodes that exchange data most frequently.

Full mesh topologies can be expensive and time-consuming to run, which is why they’re often reserved for networks that require high redundancy.
However, partial mesh provides less redundancy but is more cost-effective and simpler to run.

Regardless of subtype, mesh networks have self-configuration and self-organization capabilities, and they automate the routing process, so the
network finds the fastest, most reliable data path.

Network communication protocols

Whether it’s the Internet Protocol (IP) suite, Ethernet, wireless LAN (WLAN) or cellular communication standards, all computer networks follow
communication protocols. These protocols are sets of rules that every node on the network must follow to share and receive data.

The IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers)—which sets global standards for networking technologies—develops and manages
many of these protocols, including Ethernet (IEEE 802.3) and wifi (IEEE 802.11). Network protocols also rely on gateways to enable incompatible
devices to communicate (a Windows computer attempting to access Linux servers, for instance).

Many modern networks run on TCP/IP models, which include four network layers:

 Network access layer: Also called the data link layer or the physical layer, the network access layer of a TCP/IP network includes the
network infrastructure necessary for interfacing with the network medium. This layer handles physical data transmission—using Ethernet
and protocols like the address resolution protocol (ARP)—between devices on the same network.
 Internet layer: The internet layer is responsible for logical addressing, routing and packet forwarding. It primarily relies on the IP protocol
and the Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP), which manages the addressing and routing of packets across different networks.
 Transport layer: The TCP/IP transport layer enables data transfer between the upper and lower layers of the network. Using TCP and UDP
protocols, it also provides mechanisms for error checking and flow control. TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) is a connection-based
protocol that is slower but more reliable than UDP. UDP (User Data Protocol) is a connectionless protocol that is faster than TCP but does
not provide guaranteed transfer. UDP protocols facilitate packet transmission for time-sensitive applications (such as video streaming and
gaming platforms) and Domain Name System (DNS) lookups.
 Application layer: TCP/IP’s application layer uses protocols like HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol), FTP (File Transfer Protocol), POP3
(Post Office Protocol 3), SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol), DNS, and SSH (Secure Shell). These protocols are used to provide network
services directly to applications. It also manages all the protocols that support user applications.