Module 4 - Notes

1. Introduction to Psychological Testing and Intelligence Scales

Psychological testing is a critical tool for assessing various human abilities and characteristics. The
provided sources focus heavily on intelligence testing, particularly the widely used Wechsler scales,
as well as alternative tests for specific populations, and standardized tests used in education, civil
service, and the military. A fundamental question explored is whether intelligence can be measured
and how different tests approach this complex concept. The Wechsler scales, initially developed by
David Wechsler, represented a significant shift from earlier intelligence tests like the Binet scale,
moving away from a single score and incorporating "nonintellective" factors and performance-based
assessment.

2. The Wechsler Intelligence Scales (WAIS-IV, WISC-V, WPPSI-IV)

The Wechsler scales are prominent in the field of psychological testing. Their development was
motivated by the perceived inappropriateness of the Binet scale for adults. Key concepts introduced
by Wechsler include the Point Scale Concept and the Performance Scale Concept.

• Point Scale Concept: Unlike the Binet scale which grouped items by age, the point scale
awards credit (points) for each item, allowing for easier grouping of similar items and
consideration of different skill areas.
• Performance Scale Concept: This innovation examined nonverbal intelligence and
compared it to verbal scores. This was a crucial step in reducing bias from language and
culture.

The Wechsler scales have evolved through several revisions (WAIS, WAIS-R, WAIS-III, WAIS-IV),
with later versions utilizing more representative standardization samples. The WISC (for children
aged 6-16) and WPPSI (for preschool and primary aged children 2.5 to 7.7 years) are downward
extensions of the WAIS, adapting the principles for younger populations.
The structure of the Wechsler scales includes Scales, Subtests, and Indexes. Subtests measure
specific functions (e.g., Vocabulary, Arithmetic, Block Design). Index scores combine two or more
subtests to assess broader skill areas.

Subtest Examples:

• Vocabulary: Ability to define words.

• Similarities: Abstract thinking by identifying similarities between items.
• Arithmetic: Concentration and problem-solving with simple math problems.
• Digit Span: Immediate memory.
• Information: Range of general knowledge.
• Coding: Visual-motor functioning.
• Block Design: Nonverbal reasoning.
• Matrix Reasoning: Inductive reasoning with nonverbal stimuli.
• Comprehension: Understanding social situations, rules, and proverbs (e.g., responding to
"What should you do if you find an injured person lying in the street?").
• Key Index Scores:Verbal Comprehension: Measures crystallized intelligence.
• Perceptual Organization (or Perceptual Reasoning): Measures fluid intelligence.
• Working Memory: Considered a significant development in recent IQ tests.
• Processing Speed: Assesses how quickly the mind works.
Module 4 - Notes

Raw scores from subtests are converted to index scale scores (Mean=10, SD=3), and index scores
are combined to calculate the Full-Scale IQ (FSIQ) (Mean=100, SD=15).
Psychometric Properties: The Wechsler Adult Scale (WAIS-IV) is widely used and considered
highly reliable, with strong estimates for both internal and temporal reliability. Its validity is
considered strong for testing IQ, though it may be used for conclusions beyond its scope. The
standardization for the WAIS-IV included 2200 adults in 13 age groups. The WISC-V and WPPSI-IV
also demonstrate strong psychometric properties and represent advancements in testing, including
extended age ranges and increased flexibility.

Interpretive Features: Examining discrepancies between different index scores and the FSIQ can
help identify specific areas of difficulty. Pattern analysis, looking at large discrepancies between
subtest scores, is a feature, but its validity has been inconsistent and inconclusive, suggesting it
should primarily be used for hypothesis building.

3. Alternative Individual Ability Tests for Specific Populations

While the Binet and Wechsler scales are widely used, alternative tests are crucial for individuals with
specific needs or in special populations where the major scales may be inappropriate. These tests
differ in various aspects, including:

• Age range: Designed for specific age groups (infants, young children, adults).
• What is measured: Focus on verbal intelligence, nonverbal intelligence, or specific skills.
• Type of score: Single score versus multiple scores.
• Type of skill required: Simple motor, complex motor, verbal, nonverbal.
• Range of abilities sampled: Single specific ability versus a wide range.
• Target population: Tailored for deaf, blind, learning disabled individuals, etc.
• Timing: Some are timed, others are not.
• Examiner skill and experience: Some require less expertise.

Examples of Alternative Tests:

• Early Tests: Seguin Form Board Test (cognitive deficits, performance speed), Healy-Fernald
Test (nonverbal, juvenile delinquents), Knox Battery Test (non-English speakers).
• Infant Scales:Brazelton Neonatal Assessment Scale (BNAS): Assesses competencies in
newborns (3 days to 4 weeks), covering neurological, social, and behavioral functioning.
Drawbacks include no norms and poorly documented validity.
• Gesell Developmental Schedules (GDS): Oldest infant intelligence scale (2.3 months to
6.3 years), produces a developmental quotient. Limitations include a nonrepresentative
standardization sample and moderate psychometric qualities.
• Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development–Third Edition (BSID-III): Used for
infants 1-42 months, assesses five domains. Strong standardization and psychometrics,
widely used, but questions exist about its ability to predict future intelligence.
• Cattell Infant Intelligence Scale (CIIS): Downward extension of Stanford-Binet (2-30
months), rarely used and outdated.
• Tests for Young Children:McCarthy Scales of Children’s Abilities (MSCA): (2-8 years),
used in research, strong psychometrics, but has not been updated since initial development.
• Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children–Second Edition (KABC-II): (3-18 years),
assesses sequential-simultaneous processing, strong psychometrics, but criticized for low
predictive validity for school achievement.
Module 4 - Notes

• Tests for Special Populations:Columbia Mental Maturity Scale–Third Edition (CMMS):

(3-12 years) for those with varying abilities, requires no verbal response or fine motor skills,
untimed, assesses the ability to discriminate similarities and differences. Good
psychometrics, but vulnerable to random error.
• Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test–Fourth Edition (PPVT-IV): (2-90 years) for those with
physical or language handicaps (not deaf), assesses receptive vocabulary. Strong
psychometrics.
• Leiter International Performance Scale–Third Edition: Strictly a performance measure (3-
75+ years), assesses nonverbal intelligence, untimed, used in clinical settings. More
research needed.
• Porteus Maze Test (PMT): Popular but poorly standardized, requires no verbal instructions,
useful for those with special needs, assesses maze-solving ability.

4. Testing for Learning Disabilities and Brain Damage

• Learning Disabilities: This is a crucial area in education. The Illinois Test of

Psycholinguistic Abilities (ITPA-3) is based on the information-processing model,
assuming a learning disability can occur at any stage. The Woodcock-Johnson IV
assesses intellectual ability, cognitive abilities, and achievement, comparing them to identify
potential learning disabilities. While psychometrics are good, the field is still developing.
• Brain Damage: Tests for traumatic brain injury are based on the idea of a psychological
deficit.
• Benton Visual Retention Test–Fifth Edition (BVRT-V): Assumes traumatic brain injury
impairs visual memory, requires remembering and reproducing visual images.
• Bender Visual Motor Gestalt Test (BVMGT): Similar to BVRT-V but does not require
reproduction from memory, used for children 5-8 and to identify brain injury. Errors on this
test can occur for various reasons.
• Memory-for-Designs (MFD) Test: Similar to BVRT-V, quick to administer, good reliability,
validity needs further examination.

5. Creativity and Achievement Tests

• Creativity: Defined as the ability to be original, combine factors in new ways, and find new
relationships. The Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking (TTCT) measures fluency,
originality, and flexibility. Its psychometrics vary, and it is considered inferior to the Wechsler
and Binet tests in standardization.
• Individual Achievement Tests: Measure acquired information, not potential. The Wide
Range Achievement Test-4 (WRAT-4) is the most widely used, assessing reading, spelling,
math, and sentence comprehension. It is easy to administer and popular but may be
inaccurate in some assessments.

6. Standardized Tests in Education, Civil Service, and the Military

These tests are typically administered to groups and serve various purposes, including screening,
selection, and assessment of interests.

Comparison of Group and Individual Ability Tests:

Characteristics of Group Tests: Most are pencil-and-paper or computerized, multiple-choice, and
can be verbal, nonverbal, or mixed. They often group similar questions and scores can be converted
to various units.
Module 4 - Notes

Rules for Using Group Test Results:

1. Use Results With Caution: Never consider scores in isolation.

2. Be Especially Suspicious of Low Scores: Ensure assumptions about subjects
(cooperation, motivation) are accurate.
3. Consider Wide Discrepancies a Warning Signal: Explore reasons for unexpected scores.
4. When in Doubt, Refer: Consult a professional for further exploration.

Achievement Tests vs. Aptitude Tests:

• Achievement Tests: Evaluate the effects of a known or controlled set of experiences (what
you have learned). Rely heavily on content validation.
• Aptitude Tests: Evaluate the effects of an unknown, uncontrolled set of experiences
(potential for learning). Rely heavily on predictive criterion validation.

Group Tests in Schools (K-12):

• Achievement Tests:Stanford Achievement Test (10th edition): Oldest standardized

achievement test, widely used, K-12, assesses various subjects.
• Metropolitan Achievement Test (8th edition): Assesses reading, math, and social studies,
available in different formats.
• Tests of Mental Abilities (Intelligence):Kuhlmann-Anderson Test (KAT)–Eighth Edition:
Eight levels (K-12), primarily nonverbal, useful for those with handicaps or non-English
speakers. Praised for construction and psychometrics.
• Henmon-Nelson Test (H-NT): Appropriate for all grade levels, produces a single score,
quick measure of intelligence, high reliability. Limitations include less validity for specific
populations and a one-dimensional model of intelligence.
• Cognitive Abilities Test (COGAT) Form 7: Measures fluid intelligence, provides three
scores (verbal, quantitative, nonverbal), high reliability estimates, designed to guard against
bias, good predictor of giftedness and future performance.

College Entrance Tests:

• The New (2016) SAT: Used since 1926, verbal and mathematics sections. Has undergone
renorming and revisions, facing issues with bias and becoming more of an achievement test.
Offers an optional essay.
• The American College Test (ACT): More useful for non-native English speakers, uses the
Iowa Test of Educational Development (ITED), scores range from 1 to 36. Correlates well
with the SAT and predicts college GPA.

Graduate and Professional School Entrance Tests:

• Graduate Record Examination Aptitude Test (GRE): Commonly used for graduate school
entry. Verbal and quantitative sections. Psychometrics are adequate but less impressive
than the SAT. Limitations include moderate to negative correlations with GPA in some
studies and not being significant predictors of success for various groups. More useful when
considered alongside other information.
• Miller Analogies Test: Assesses scholastic aptitude in a fully verbal format, task is to
deduce logical relationships. Correlates well with GRE but predictive validity is unimpressive
and varies by age group. Useful for discriminating applicants but bias should be considered.
Module 4 - Notes

• The Law School Admission Test (LSAT): For professional degree programs, involves time
pressure. Three problem types: reading comprehension, logical reasoning, analytical
reasoning. Little change over the years, faces the problem of bias.

Nonverbal Group Ability Tests:

• Raven Progressive Matrices: Well-known and popular, identifies missing part of a logical
sequence, considered a strong measure of general intelligence (g). Strong psychometrics,
useful for culturally diverse groups.
• Goodenough-Harris Drawing Test (G-HDT): Nonverbal, quick, easy, and inexpensive.
Task is to draw a person, scoring based on details included. Appropriate for younger
children, often part of a test battery.
• The Culture Fair Intelligence Test: Seeks to overcome cultural bias but is not more
successful than other measures. Psychometrics vary by age group.

Standardized Tests in Civil Service and Military:

• U.S. Civil Service System:General Aptitude Test Battery (GATB): Assesses a range of
skills, may be outdated. Historically used illegal within-group norming.
• U.S. Military:The Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery (ASVAB): Administered
widely, designed for 11th and 12th graders and out-of-school individuals. Ten subtests,
excellent psychometrics, now administered adaptively by computer.

This briefing document provides a comprehensive overview of the key topics covered in the provided
sources, highlighting the evolution of intelligence testing, the features and properties of the Wechsler
scales, the importance of alternative tests for diverse populations, and the application of
standardized tests in various sectors.