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UNIT IV: MOBILE ADHOC NETWORKS

Ad-Hoc Basic Concepts – Characteristics – Applications – Design Issues – Routing –

Essential of Traditional Routing Protocols –Popular Routing Protocols – Vehicular Ad Hoc

4.1 ADHOC BASIC CONCEPTS

A wireless ad hoc network (WANET) is a decentralized type of wireless network. The
network is ad hoc because it does not rely on a preexisting infrastructure, such as routers in
wired networks or access points in managed (infrastructure) wireless networks. Instead, each
node participates in routing by forwarding data for other nodes, so the determination of which
nodes forward data is made dynamically on the basis of network connectivity.
In addition to the classic routing, ad hoc networks can use flooding for forwarding
data. Wireless mobile ad hoc networks are self-configuring, dynamic networks in which nodes
are free to move. Wireless networks lack the complexities of infrastructure setup and
administration, enabling devices to create and join networks "on the fly" - anywhere, anytime.
A wireless ad-hoc network, also known as IBSS - Independent Basic Service Set, is a
computer network in which the communication links are wireless. The network is ad-hoc
because each node is willing to forward data for other nodes, and so the determination of
which nodes forward data is made dynamically based on the network connectivity. This is in
contrast to older network technologies in which some designated nodes, usually with custom
hardware and variously known as routers, switches, hubs, and firewalls, perform the task of
forwarding the data.
History of MANET: The earliest wireless ad-hoc networks were called "packet radio"
networks, and were sponsored by Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) in
the early 1970s. Bolt, Beranek and Newman Technologies (BBN) and SRI International
designed, built, and experimented with these earliest systems. Experimenters included Jerry
Burchfield, Robert Kahn, and Ray Tomlinson of later TEN-EXtended (TENEX), Internet and
email fame. Similar experiments took place in the Ham radio community. It is interesting to
note that these early packet radio systems predated the Internet, and indeed were part of the
motivation of the original Internet Protocol suite. Later DARPA experiments included the
Survivable Radio Network (SURAN) project, which took place in the 1980s.
Another third wave of academic activity started in the mid-1990s with the advent of
inexpensive 802.11 radio cards for personal computers. Current wireless ad-hoc networks are
designed primarily for military utility.
Types of Wireless Networks: Infrastructure Network and Infrastructure less network
Infrastructure Network: Infrastructure mode is an 802.11 networking framework in which
devices communicate with each other by first going through an Access Point (AP). In
infrastructure mode, wireless devices can communicate with each other or can communicate
with a wired network. When one AP is connected to wired network and a set of wireless
stations it is referred to as a Basic Service Set (BSS). An Extended Service Set (ESS) is a set

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of two or more BSSs that form a single subnetwork. Most corporate wireless LANs operate in
infrastructure mode because they require access to the wired LAN in order to use services
such as file servers or printers.
Infrastructure less network: mobile ad hoc network (MANET), also known as wireless ad hoc
network or ad hoc wireless network, is a continuously self-configuring, infrastructure-less
network of mobile devices connected wirelessly.

4.2 CHARACTERISTICS
MANET (Mobile Ad hoc Network): It is an infrastructure less IP based network of mobile
and wireless machine nodes connected with radio. In operation, the nodes of a MANET do not
have a centralized administration mechanism. It is known for its routable network properties
where each node act as a router to forward the traffic to other specified node in the network.

Figure 1: MANET (Mobile Ad hoc Network)

The characteristics of the MANET are as follows
 The nodes can join or leave the network anytime, making the network topology
dynamic in nature.
 Mobile nodes are characterized with less memory, power and light weight features.
 The reliability, efficiency, stability and capacity of wireless links are often inferior
when compared with wired links. This shows the fluctuating link bandwidth of
wireless links.
 Mobile and spontaneous behaviour which demands minimum human intervention to
configure the network.
 High user density and large level of user mobility.
 Nodal connectivity is intermittent.
 Distributed operation: There is no background network for the central control of the
network operations, the control of the network is distributed among the nodes. The
nodes involved in a MANET should cooperate with each other and communicate

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among themselves and each node acts as a relay as needed, to implement specific
functions such as routing and security.
 Multi hop routing: When a node tries to send information to other nodes which is out
of its communication range, the packet should be forwarded via one or more
intermediate nodes.
 Autonomous terminal: In MANET, each mobile node is an independent node, which
could function as both a host and a router.
 Dynamic topology: Nodes are free to move arbitrarily with different speeds; thus, the
network topology may change randomly and at unpredictable time. The nodes in the
MANET dynamically establish routing among themselves as they travel around,
establishing their own network.
 Light-weight terminals: In maximum cases, the nodes at MANET are mobile with less
CPU capability, low power storage and small memory size.
 Shared Physical Medium: The wireless communication medium is accessible to any
entity with the appropriate equipment and adequate resources. Accordingly, access to
the channel cannot be restricted.

4.3 APPLICATIONS OF MANET

 Military battlefield: Ad-Hoc networking would allow the military to take advantage of
commonplace network technology to maintain an information network between the
soldiers, vehicles, and military information head quarter.
 Collaborative work: For some business environments, the need for collaborative
computing might be more important outside office environments than inside and
where people do need to have outside meetings to cooperate and exchange information
on a given project.
 Local level: Ad-Hoc networks can autonomously link an instant and temporary
multimedia network using notebook computers to spread and share information among
participants at conference or classroom. Another appropriate local level application
might be in home networks where devices can communicate directly to exchange
information.

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Figure 2: Applications of MANET (Mobile Ad hoc Network)

 Personal area network and bluetooth: A personal area network is a short range,
localized network where nodes are usually associated with a given person. Short-range
MANET such as Bluetooth can simplify the inter communication between various
mobile devices such as a laptop, and a mobile phone.
 Commercial Sector: Ad hoc can be used in emergency/rescue operations for disaster
relief efforts, e.g. in fire, flood, or earthquake. Emergency rescue operations must take
place where non-existing or damaged communications infrastructure and rapid
deployment of a communication network is needed.
 Mobile Ad hoc Networks (MANET) : A mobile ad hoc network (MANET) is a
continuously self-configuring, infrastructure-less network of mobile devices connected
without wires.
 Vehicular Ad hoc Networks (VANETs) are used for communication between vehicles
and roadside equipment. Intelligent vehicular ad hoc networks (In VANETs) are a
kind of artificial intelligence that helps vehicles to behave in intelligent manners
during vehicle-to-vehicle collisions, accidents.
 Smart Phone Ad hoc Networks (SPANs) leverage the existing hardware (primarily
Bluetooth and Wi-Fi) in commercially available smart phones to create peer-to-peer
networks without relying on cellular carrier networks, wireless access points, or
traditional network infrastructure.
 Internet based mobile ad hoc networks (iMANETs) are ad hoc networks that link
mobile nodes and fixed Internet-gateway nodes. One implementation of this is
Persistent System's Cloud Relay.

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 Military / Tactical MANETs are used by military units with emphasis on security,
range, and integration with existing systems.

4.4 DESIGN ISSUES

The wireless link characteristics are time-varying in nature: There are transmission
impediments like fading, path loss, blockage and interference that adds to the susceptible
behaviour of wireless channels. The reliability of wireless transmission is resisted by
different factors.

 Limited range of wireless transmission – The limited radio band results in

reduced data rates compared to the wireless networks. Hence optimal usage of
bandwidth is necessary by keeping low overhead as possible.
 Packet losses due to errors in transmission – MANETs experience higher
packet loss due to factors such as hidden terminals that results in collisions,
wireless channel issues (high bit error rate (BER)), interference, frequent breakage
in paths caused by mobility of nodes, increased collisions due to the presence of
hidden terminals and uni-directional links.
 Route changes due to mobility- The dynamic nature of network topology results
in frequent path breaks.
 Frequent network partitions - The random movement of nodes often leads to
partition of the network. This mostly affects the intermediate nodes.

Limited bandwidth: Wireless link continue to have significantly lower capacity than
infra structured networks. In addition, the realized throughput of wireless communication
after accounting for the effect of multiple access, fading, noise, and interference
conditions, etc., is often much less than a radio‘s maximum transmission rate.

Dynamic topology: Dynamic topology membership may disturb the trust relationship
among nodes. The trust may also be disturbed if some nodes are detected as compromised.
Routing Overhead: In wireless adhoc networks, nodes often change their location within
network. So, some stale routes are generated in the routing table which leads to
unnecessary routing overhead.

Hidden terminal problem: The hidden terminal problem refers to the collision of packets
at a receiving node due to the simultaneous transmission of those nodes that are not within
the direct transmission range of the sender, but are within the transmission range of the
receiver.

Packet losses due to transmission errors: Ad hoc wireless networks experiences a much
higher packet loss due to factors such as increased collisions due to the presence of hidden
terminals, presence of interference, uni-directional links, frequent path breaks due to
mobility of nodes.

Mobility-induced route changes: The network topology in an ad hoc wireless network is

highly dynamic due to the movement of nodes; hence an on-going session suffers frequent
path breaks. This situation often leads to frequent route changes.
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Battery constraints: Devices used in these networks have restrictions on the power source
in order to maintain portability, size and weight of the device.

Security threats: The wireless mobile ad hoc nature of MANETs brings new security
challenges to the network design. As the wireless medium is vulnerable to eavesdropping
and ad hoc network functionality is established through node cooperation, mobile ad hoc
networks are intrinsically exposed to numerous security attacks.

4.5 ROUTING
Routing is the process of selecting best paths in a network. In the past, the term routing
also meant forwarding network traffic among networks. However, that latter function is better
described as forwarding. Routing is performed for many kinds of networks, including the
telephone network (circuit switching), electronic data networks (such as the Internet), and
transportation networks.
The routing process usually directs forwarding on the basis of routing tables, which
maintain a record of the routes to various network destinations. Thus, constructing routing
tables, which are held in the router's memory, is very important for efficient routing. Most
routing algorithms use only one network path at a time. Multipath routing techniques enable
the use of multiple alternative paths.
As the nodes in a wireless ad hoc network can be connected in a dynamic and arbitrary
manner, the nodes themselves must behave as routers and take part in discovery and
maintenance of routes to other nodes in the network.
The goal of a routing algorithm is to devise a scheme for transferring a packet from
one node to another. One challenge is to define/choose which criteria to base the routing
decisions on. Examples of such criteria include hop length, latency, bandwidth and
transmission power.
The challenges in designing a routing protocol for ad hoc wireless networks, and a
brief overview of these is given below.
Mobility: The network need to adopt to rapid changes in the topology due to the movement of
the nodes, or the network as a whole.
Resource constraints: Nodes in a wireless network typically have limited battery and
processing power, and these resources must be managed optimally by the routing protocol.
Error-prone channel state: The characteristics of the links in a wireless network typically
varies, and this calls for an interaction between the routing protocol and the MAC protocol to,
if necessary, find alternate routes.
MANET routing protocols are typically subdivided into two main categories: proactive
routing protocols and reactive on-demand routing protocols.

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Proactive routing protocols: In networks utilizing a proactive routing protocol, every node
maintains one or more tables representing the entire topology of the network. These tables
are updated regularly in order to maintain a up-to-date routing information from each node
to every other node.
To maintain the up-to-date routing information, topology information needs to be exchanged
between the nodes on a regular basis, leading to relatively high overhead on the network.
One the other hand, routes will always be available on request.
Many proactive protocols stem from conventional link state routing, including the Optimized
Link State Routing protocol (OLSR), DSDV, WRP, CGSR, etc.

Figure 3: Ad Hoc Routing Protocols Overview

Reactive routing protocols: Unlike proactive routing protocols, reactive routing protocols
does not make the nodes initiate a route discovery process until a route to a destination is
required. This leads to higher latency than with proactive protocols, but lower overhead.

4.6 ESSENTIAL OF TRADITIONAL ROUTING PROTOCOLS

Link State Routing Protocol

Link state routing has a different philosophy from that of distance vector routing. In
link state routing, if each node in the domain has the entire topology of the domain the list of
nodes and links, how they are connected including the type, cost (metric), and condition of the
links (up or down)-the node can use Dijkstra's algorithm to build a routing table.

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Figure 4: Example network for Dijkstra algorithm

The figure shows a simple domain with six nodes. Each node uses the same topology
to create a routing table, but the routing table for each node is unique because the calculations
are based on different interpretations of the topology. This is analogous to a city map. While
each person may have the same map, each needs to take a different route to reach her specific
destination.
The topology must be dynamic, representing the latest state of each node and each
link. If there are changes in any point in the network (a link is down, for example), the
topology must be updated for each node.
Building Routing Tables
In link state routing, four sets of actions are required to ensure that each node has the
routing table showing the least-cost node to every other node.

1. Creation of the states of the links by each node, called the link state packet (LSP).
2. Dissemination of LSPs to every other router, called flooding, in an efficient and reliable
way.
3. Formation of a shortest path tree for each node.
4. Calculation of a routing table based on the shortest path tree.

Creation of Link State Packet (LSP)

A link state packet can carry a large amount of information. For the moment, however,
we assume that it carries a minimum amount of data: the node identity, the list of links, a
sequence number, and age. The first two, node identity and the list of links, are needed to
make the topology. The third, sequence number, facilitates flooding and distinguishes new
LSPs from old ones. The fourth, age, prevents old LSPs from remaining in the domain for a
long time. LSPs are generated on two occasions:

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 When there is a change in the topology of the domain. Triggering of LSP

dissemination is the main way of quickly informing any node in the domain to
update its topology.
 On a periodic basis. The period in this case is much longer compared to
distance vector routing. As a matter of fact, there is no actual need for this type
of LSP dissemination.
It is done to ensure that old information is removed from the domain. The timer set for
periodic dissemination is normally in the range of 60 min or 2 h based on the implementation.
A longer period ensures that flooding does not create too much traffic on the network.
Flooding of LSPs After a node has prepared an LSP, it must be disseminated to all
other nodes, not only to its neighbors. The process is called flooding and based on the
following:
 The creating node sends a copy of the LSP out of each interface.
 A node that receives an LSP compares it with the copy it may already have. If
the newly arrived LSP is older than the one it has (found by checking the
sequence number), it discards the LSP.
If it is newer, the node does the following:
 It discards the old LSP and keeps the new one.
 It sends a copy of it out of each interface except the one from which the packet
arrived. This guarantees that flooding stops somewhere in the domain (where a
node has only one interface).
Formation of Shortest Path Tree
Dijkstra Algorithm After receiving all LSPs, each node will have a copy of the whole
topology. However, the topology is not sufficient to find the shortest path to every other node;
a shortest path tree is needed.
A tree is a graph of nodes and links; one node is called the root. All other nodes can be
reached from the root through only one single route. A shortest path tree is a tree in which the
path between the root and every other node is the shortest. What we need for each node is a
shortest path tree with that node as the root.
The Dijkstra algorithm creates a shortest path tree from a graph. The algorithm divides
the nodes into two sets: tentative and permanent. It finds the neighbours of a current node,
makes them tentative, examines them, and if they pass the criteria, makes them permanent.
Based on the shortest path tree the data packets will be delivered to destination node.

Distance Vector Routing Protocol

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In distance vector routing, the least-cost route between any two nodes is the route with
minimum distance. In this protocol, as the name implies, each node maintains a vector (table)
of minimum distances to every node. The table at each node also guides the packets to the
desired node by showing the next stop in the route (next-hop routing).

Figure 5: Distance vector routing tables

Initialization: The table for node A shows how we can reach any node from this node. For
example, our least cost to reach node E is 6. The route passes through C. Each node knows
how to reach any other node and the cost. Each node can know only the distance between
itself and its immediate neighbors, those directly connected to it.
So for the moment, we assume that each node can send a message to the immediate
neighbors and find the distance between itself and these neighbors.

Figure 6: Initialization of tables in distance vector routing

Sharing - In distance vector routing, each node shares its routing table with its immediate
neighbors periodically and when there is a change.
Updating: When a node receives a two-column table from a neighbor, it needs to update its
routing table.
Updating takes three steps:

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 The receiving node needs to add the cost between itself and the sending node to each
value in the second column. The logic is clear. If node C claims that its distance to a
destination is x mi, and the distance between A and C is y mi, then the distance
between A and that destination, via C, is x + y mi.
 The receiving node needs to add the name of the sending node to each row as the third
column if the receiving node uses information from any row. The sending node is the
next node in the route.
 The receiving node needs to compare each row of its old table with the corresponding
row of the modified version of the received table.
 If the next-node entry is different, the receiving node chooses the row with the smaller
cost. If there is a tie, the old one is kept.
 If the next-node entry is the same, the receiving node chooses the new row. For
example, suppose node C has previously advertised a route to node X with distance 3.
Suppose that now there is no path between C and X; node C now advertises this route
with a distance of infinity.
 Node A must not ignore this value even though its old entry is smaller. The old route
does not exist anymore. The new route has a distance of infinity. Each node can update
its table by using the tables received from other nodes.

Figure 7: Table Updating

 Periodic Update A node sends its routing table, normally every 30 s, in a periodic
update. The period depends on the protocol that is using distance vector routing.
 Triggered Update A node sends its two-column routing table to its neighbors anytime
there is a change in its routing table. This is called a triggered update. The change can
result from the following.
Disadvantages of Distance Vector routing: It is slower to converge than Link State. It is at
risk from the count-to-infinity problem. It creates more traffic than Link State since a hop
count change must be propagated to all routers and processed on each router.

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4.7 POPULAR MANET ROUTING PROTOCOLS

Destination Sequenced Distance Vector Routing (DSDV)
Destination sequenced distance vector routing (DSDV) is adapted from the
conventional Routing Information Protocol (RIP) to ad hoc networks routing. It adds a new
attribute, sequence number, to each route table entry of the conventional RIP. Using the newly
added sequence number, the mobile nodes can distinguish stale route information from the
new and thus prevent the formation of routing loops.
Packet Routing and Routing Table Management
In DSDV, each mobile node of an ad hoc network maintains a routing table, which
lists all available destinations, the metric and next hop to each destination and a sequence
number generated by the destination node. Using such routing table stored in each mobile
node, the packets are transmitted between the nodes of an ad hoc network. Each node of the
ad hoc network updates the routing table with advertisement periodically or when significant
new information is available to maintain the consistency of the routing table with the
dynamically changing topology of the ad hoc network.

Figure 8: Table format of DSDV protocol

Periodically or immediately when network topology changes are detected, each mobile
node advertises routing information using broadcasting or multicasting a routing table update
packet. The update packet starts out with a metric of one to direct connected nodes. This
indicates that each receiving neighbor is one metric (hop) away from the node. It is different
from that of the conventional routing algorithms.
After receiving the update packet, the neighbors update their routing table with
incrementing the metric by one and retransmit the update packet to the corresponding
neighbors of each of them. The process will be repeated until all the nodes in the ad hoc
network have received a copy of the update packet with a corresponding metric. The update
data is also kept for a while to wait for the arrival of the best route for each particular
destination node in each node before updating its routing table and retransmitting the update
packet.
If a node receives multiple update packets for a same destination during the waiting
time period, the routes with more recent sequence numbers are always preferred as the basis
for packet forwarding decisions, but the routing information is not necessarily advertised
immediately, if only the sequence numbers have been changed. If the update packets have the
same sequence number with the same node, the update packet with the smallest metric will be
used and the existing route will be discarded or stored as a less preferable route. In this case,

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the update packet will be propagated with the sequence number to all mobile nodes in the ad
hoc network.

Figure 9: Updating new node to Table

The advertisement of routes that are about to change may be delayed until the best
routes have been found. Delaying the advertisement of possibly unstable route can damp the
fluctuations of the routing table and reduce the number of rebroadcasts of possible route
entries that arrive with the same sequence number. The elements in the routing table of each
mobile node change dynamically to keep consistency with dynamically changing topology of
an ad hoc network.
To reach this consistency, the routing information advertisement must be frequent or
quick enough to ensure that each mobile node can almost always locate all the other mobile
nodes in the dynamic ad hoc network. Upon the updated routing information, each node has to
relay data packet to other nodes upon request in the dynamically created ad hoc network.

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Figure 10: Updating broken link to Table

Dynamic Source Routing Protocol (DSR)

Dynamic Source Routing (DSR) is a routing protocol for wireless mesh networks. It is
similar to AODV in that it forms a route on-demand when a transmitting node requests one.
However, it uses source routing instead of relying on the routing table at each intermediate
device.
Determining source routes requires accumulating the address of each device between
the source and destination during route discovery. The accumulated path information is
cached by nodes processing the route discovery packets. The learned paths are used to route
packets. To accomplish source routing, the routed packets contain the address of each device
the packet will traverse. This may result in high overhead for long paths or large addresses,
like IPv6.
To avoid using source routing, DSR optionally defines a flow id option that allows
packets to be forwarded on a hop-by-hop basis. This protocol is truly based on source routing
whereby all the routing information is maintained (continually updated) at mobile nodes. It
has only two major phases, which are Route Discovery and Route Maintenance. Route Reply
would only be generated if the message has reached the intended destination node (route
record which is initially contained in Route Request would be inserted into the Route Reply).

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Figure 11: Route Discovery in DSR

To return the Route Reply, the destination node must have a route to the source node.
If the route is in the Destination Node's route cache, the route would be used. Otherwise, the
node will reverse the route based on the route record in the Route Request message header
(this requires that all links are symmetric). In the event of fatal transmission, the Route
Maintenance Phase is initiated whereby the Route Error packets are generated at a node.
The erroneous hop will be removed from the node's route cache; all routes containing
the hop are truncated at that point. Again, the Route Discovery Phase is initiated to determine
the most viable route.

Figure 12: Route Reply in DSR

Dynamic source routing protocol (DSR) is an on-demand protocol designed to restrict
the bandwidth consumed by control packets in ad hoc wireless networks by eliminating the
periodic table-update messages required in the table-driven approach. The major difference
between this and the other on-demand routing protocols is that it is beacon-less and hence
does not require periodic hello packet (beacon) transmissions, which are used by a node to
inform its neighbors of its presence.

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The basic approach of this protocol (and all other on-demand routing protocols) during
the route construction phase is to establish a route by flooding Route Request (RREQ) packets
in the network. The destination node, on receiving a Route Request (RREQ) packet, responds
by sending a Route Reply (RREP) packet back to the source, which carries the route traversed
by the Route Request (RREQ) packet received.
Consider a source node that does not have a route to the destination. When it has data
packets to be sent to that destination, it initiates a Route Request packet. This Route Request
(RREQ) is flooded throughout the network. Each node, upon receiving a Route Request
(RREQ) packet, rebroadcasts the packet to its neighbors if it has not forwarded it already,
provided that the node is not the destination node and that the packet‘s time to live (TTL)
counter has not been exceeded.
Each Route Request (RREQ) carries a sequence number generated by the source node
and the path it has traversed. A node, upon receiving a Route Request (RREQ) packet, checks
the sequence number on the packet before forwarding it. The packet is forwarded only if it is
not a duplicate Route Request (RREQ). The sequence number on the packet is used to prevent
loop formations and to avoid multiple transmissions of the same Route Request (RREQ) by an
intermediate node that receives it through multiple paths.
Thus, all nodes except the destination forward a Route Request packet during the route
construction phase. A destination node, after receiving the first Route Request packet, replies
to the source node through the reverse path the Route Request packet had traversed. Nodes
can also learn about the neighbouring routes traversed by data packets if operated in the
promiscuous mode (the mode of operation in which a node can receive the packets that are
neither broadcast nor addressed to itself). This route cache is also used during the route
construction phase.
This protocol uses a reactive approach which eliminates the need to periodically flood
the network with table update messages which are required in a table-driven approach. In a
reactive (on-demand) approach such as this, a route is established only when it is required and
hence the need to find routes to all other nodes in the network as required by the table-driven
approach is eliminated. The intermediate nodes also utilize the route cache information
efficiently to reduce the control overhead.

Figure 13: Data packet to destination in DSR

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Advantages: Routes maintained only between nodes who need to communicate. Route
caching can further reduce route discovery overhead. A single route discovery may yield
many routes to the destination, due to intermediate nodes replying from local caches.
Disadvantages: The disadvantage of this protocol is that the route maintenance mechanism
does not locally repair a broken link. Stale route cache information could also result in
inconsistencies during the route reconstruction phase. The connection setup delay is higher
than in table-driven protocols. Even though the protocol performs well in static and low-
mobility environments, the performance degrades rapidly with increasing mobility. Also,
considerable routing overhead is involved due to the source-routing mechanism employed in
DSR. This routing overhead is directly proportional to the path length.
Adhoc On-Demand Distance Vector Routing (AODV)
Reactive protocols seek to set up routes on-demand. If a node wants to initiate
communication with a node to which it has no route, the routing protocol will try to establish
such a route. The philosophy in AODV, like all reactive protocols, is that topology
information is only transmitted by nodes on-demand. When a node wishes to transmit traffic
to a host to which it has no route, it will generate a route request (RREQ) message that will be
flooded in a limited way to other nodes.
This causes control traffic overhead to be dynamic and it will result in an initial delay
when initiating such communication. A route is considered found when the RREQ message
reaches either the destination itself, or an intermediate node with a valid route entry for the
destination. For as long as a route exists between two endpoints, AODV remains passive.
When the route becomes invalid or lost, AODV will again issue a request.
AODV avoids the ``counting to infinity'' problem from the classical distance vector
algorithm by using sequence numbers for every route. The counting to infinity problem is the
situation where nodes update each other in a loop. Consider nodes A, B, C and D making up a
MANET. A is not updated on the fact that its route to D via C is broken. This means that A
has a registered route, with a metric of 2, to D. C has registered that the link to D is down, so
once node B is updated on the link breakage between C and D, it will calculate the shortest
path to D to be via A using a metric of 3. C receives information that B can reach D in 3 hops
and updates its metric to 4 hops. A then registers an update in hop-count for its route to D via
C and updates the metric to 5. And so they continue to increment the metric in a loop.

Figure 14: AODV protocol RREQ

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The way this is avoided in AODV, for the example described, is by B noticing that As
route to D is old based on a sequence number. B will then discard the route and C will be the
node with the most recent routing information by which B will update its routing table.
AODV defines three types of control messages for route maintenance:
RREQ: A route request message is transmitted by a node requiring a route to a node. As an
optimization AODV uses an expanding ring technique when flooding these messages. Every
RREQ carries a time to live (TTL) value that states for how many hops this message should
be forwarded. This value is set to a predefined value at the first transmission and increased at
retransmissions. Retransmissions occur if no replies are received. Data packets waiting to be
transmitted (i.e. the packets that initiated the RREQ) should be buffered locally and
transmitted by a FIFO principal when a route is set.
RREP: A route reply message is unicasted back to the originator of a RREQ if the receiver is
either the node using the requested address, or it has a valid route to the requested address.
The reason one can unicast the message back, is that every route forwarding a RREQ caches a
route back to the originator.
RERR: Nodes monitor the link status of next hops in active routes. When a link breakage in
an active route is detected, a RERR message is used to notify other nodes of the loss of the
link. In order to enable this reporting mechanism, each node keeps a ``precursor list'',
containing the IP address for each its neighbors that are likely to use it as a next hop towards
each destination.

Figure 15: A possible path for a route reply if A wishes to find a route to J.
Node A wishes to initiate traffic to node J for which it has no route. A broadcasts a
RREQ which is flooded to all nodes in the network. When this request is forwarded to J from
H, J generates a RREP. This RREP is then unicasted back to A using the cached entries in
nodes H, G and D.

Zone Routing Protocol (ZRP)

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The Zone Routing Protocol, as its name implies, is based on the concept of zones. A routing
zone is defined for each node separately, and the zones of neighboring nodes overlap. The
routing zone has a radius ρ expressed in hops. The zone thus includes the nodes, whose
distance from the node in question is at most ρ hops. An example routing zone is shown in
Figure 1, where the routing zone of S includes the nodes A–I, but not K. In the illustrations,
the radius is marked as a circle around the node in question. It should however be noted that
the zone is defined in hops, not as a physical distance.
The nodes of a zone are divided into peripheral nodes and interior nodes. Peripheral nodes are
nodes whose minimum distance to the central node is exactly equal to the zone radius ρ. The
nodes whose minimum distance is less than ρ are interior nodes. In Figure 1, the nodes A–F
are interior nodes, the nodes G–J are peripheral nodes and the node K is outside the routing
zone. Note that node H can be reached by two paths, one with length 2 and one with length 3
hops. The node is however within the zone, since the shortest path is less than or equal to the
zone radius.

Figure 16: Example of routing zone.

The number of nodes in the routing zone can be regulated by adjusting the transmission power
of the nodes. Lowering the power reduces the number of nodes within direct reach and vice
versa. The number of neighboring nodes should be sufficient to provide adequate reachability
and redundancy. On the other hand, a too large coverage results in many zone members and
the update traffic becomes excessive. Further, large transmission coverage adds to the
probability of local contention.
ZRP refers to the locally proactive routing component as the IntrA-zone Routing Protocol
(IARP). The globally reactive routing component is named IntEr-zone Routing Protocol
(IERP). IERP and IARP are not specific routing protocols. Instead, IARP is a family of
limited-depth, proactive link-state routing protocols. IARP maintains routing information for
nodes that are within the routing zone of the node. Correspondingly, IERP is a family of
reactive routing protocols that offer enhanced route discovery and route maintenance services
based on local connectivity monitored by IARP.
The fact that the topology of the local zone of each node is known can be used to reduce
traffic when global route discovery is needed. Instead of broadcasting packets, ZRP uses a
concept called border casting. Border casting utilizes the topology information provided by

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IARP to direct query request to the border of the zone. The bordercast packet delivery service
is provided by the Bordercast Resolution Protocol (BRP). BRP uses a map of an extended
routing zone to construct bordercast trees for the query packets. Alternatively, it uses source
routing based on the normal routing zone. By employing query control mechanisms, route
requests can be directed away from areas of the network that already have been covered.

Figure 17: Example of Interzone routing zone.

In order to detect new neighbor nodes and link failures, the ZRP relies on a Neighbor
Discovery Protocol (NDP) provided by the Media Access Control (MAC) layer. NDP
transmits “HELLO” beacons at regular intervals. Upon receiving a beacon, the neighbor table
is updated. Neighbors, for which no beacon has been received within a specified time, are
removed from the table. If the MAC layer does not include a NDP, the functionality must be
provided by IARP.

4.8 VEHICULAR ADHOC NETWORKS (VANET)

Vehicular Ad hoc Network (VANET), a subclass of mobile Ad Hoc networks
(MANETs), is a promising approach for future intelligent transportation system (ITS). These
networks have no fixed infrastructure and instead rely on the vehicles themselves to provide
netw ork functionality. However, due to mobility constraints, driver behavior, and high
mobility, VANETs exhibit characteristics that are dramatically different from many generic
MANETs.

Networking Properties of VANET: VANETs are an instantiation of a Mobile Ad Hoc

networks (MANETs). MANETs have no fixed infrastructure and instead rely on ordinary
nodes to perform routing of messages and network management functions. However,

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Vehicular Ad Hoc networks behave in fundamentally different ways than the models that
predominate MANET research. Driver behavior, constraints on mobility, and high speeds
create unique Characteristics in IVC networks. These characteristics have important
implications for design decisions in these networks. The major differences are as follows. a)
Rapid changes in the VANETs topology are difficult to manage. Due to high relative speed
between cars network's topology changes very fast. b) The IVC network is subject to frequent
fragmentation, even at a high rate of IVC deployment. Although the connectivity
characteristic of MANETs has been studied broadly, there is few research which tries to tackle
this problem. It is mostly because VANET's connectivity depends on the scenario. Of course
being connective for VANETs is not important for emergency safety messages since while the
network is not connected there is no problem in safety point of view. c) The IVC network has
small effective network diameter. Rapid changes in connectivity cause many pas to disconnect
before they can be utilized.
This characteristic is important for mostly comfort application as they need to
establish unicast and multicast routes (e.g., to the internet gateway). d) No significant power
constraints, unlike sensor and other types of mobile networks where limited battery life is a
major concern. Potentially large-scale: In a city center or highways at the entrance of big cities
the network could be quite large scale. Variable Network density: the network's density
depends on vehicular density which is highly variable. In traffic jam situations the network
can be categorized in very dense networks in suburban traffics it could be a sparse network. g)
The topology of the network could be affected by driver's behavior due to his/her reaction to
the messages. In other words the content of messages can change net-work's topology.
Safety Applications: Examples of vehicle-to-vehicle safety communication may include
collision waning, road obstacle warning, cooperative driving, intersection collision warning,
and lane change assistance. There are two types of safety messages in the control channel
(e.g., of DSRC) and can be classified depending on how they are generated: event driven and
periodic. The first ones are the result of the detection of an unsafe situation, (eg., a car crash,
the proximity of vehicles at high speed, etc). Periodic messages instead can be seen as
preventive messages in terms of safety, and their information can also be used by other (non-
safety) applications (e.g., traffic monitoring) or protocols (e.g., routing).
Periodic message exchange (also called beaconing) is needed to make vehicles aware
of their environment. Thus, they will be able to avoid emergency or unsafe situations even
before they appear. Therefore beacon messages essentially contain the stat of the sending
vehicle, i.e., position, direction, speed, etc., and also aggregated data regarding the state of
their neighbors. It is reasonable to assume that these periodic messages will be sent in a
broadcast fashion since the messages' content can be beneficial for all vehicles around. In the
following we come to debate the previous related works attempting to providing safety
applications. MAC Layer
Issues: As mentioned before, event driven messages should have higher priority than periodic
and comfort messages. Thus some mechanisms for service differentiation and admission
control are needed. In the other words, we could define the levels of priority. Event driven
safety messages, beacon safety messages and comfort messages, in decreasing order.

4.9 MANET vs VANET

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In ad-hoc networks all the nodes are mobile in nature and hence they can be interfaced
dynamically in arbitrary fashion. As we know any wireless transmission has distance coverage
limitation, wireless node will utilize its neighbouring nodes to transmit the packet beyond its
distance limitation. To overcome this limitation, MANET nodes require ad-hoc type routing
protocols. They are of two types viz. table driven routing protocols and On demand routing
protocols. Following are the features of MANET network:
 Dynamic topologies
 Variable capacity links
 Energy constrained operation
 Limited physical security
VANET is the short form of Vehicular Adhoc Network. It is subclass of network of
MANET type. The routing protocols of MANET are not feasible to be used in the VANET
network. If they are used then also they will not be able to deliver required throughput as it
has fast changing adhoc network.
In VANET, the communication nodes are moving on pre-defined roads as finalized
initially.
The VANET architecture consists of three type of categories as mentioned below:
 cellular and WLAN network
 Pure Ad hoc (network between vehicles and fixed gateways)
 Hybrid (combination of both infrastructure and adhoc networks).
In the first type, fixed gateways and WiMaX/WiFi APs are used at traffic junctions to
connect with the internet, to obtain traffic information and used for routing. The VANET
nodes are not subject to storage and power limitation.
MANETs are a kind of wireless ad hoc networks that usually has a routable networking
environment on top of a Link Layer ad hoc network. A mobile ad-hoc network (MANET) is
a self-configuring infrastructure- less network of mobile devices connected by wireless.
Each device in a MANET is free to move independently in any direction, and will therefore
change its links to other devices frequently. Vehicular Ad hoc Network (VANET) is a
subclass of mobile Ad Hoc networks (MANETs). These networks have no fixed
infrastructure and instead rely on the vehicles themselves to provide network functionality.
These networks offer several benefits to organizations of any size. While such a network
does pose certain safety concerns but this does not limit VANET‘s potential as a
productivity tool. GPS and navigation systems can benefit, as they can be integrated with
traffic reports to provide the fastest route to work.

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VANET Communication modes: Vehicle-to-Vehicle (V2V) among vehicles, Vehicle-to-

Infrastructure (V2I), between vehicles and Road-Side Units (RSUs), Vehicle-to-X (V2X),
mixed V2V-V2I approach

Figure 18: VANET Communication modes.

4.10 VANETs APPLICATIONS

Active Road-Safety Applications: To avoid the risk of car accidents: e.g., cooperative
collision warning, pre-crash sensing, lane change, traffic violation warning
Traffic efficiency and management applications: To optimize flows of vehicles: e.g.,
enhanced route guidance/navigation, traffic light optimal scheduling, lane merging
assistance
Comfort and Infotainment applications: To provide the driver with information support and
entertainment: e.g., point of interest notification, media downloading, map download and
update, parking access, media streaming, voice over IP, multiplayer gaming, web browsing,
social networking

4.10 SECURITY
Among all the challenges of the VANET, security got less attention so far. VANET
packets contains life critical information hence it is necessary to make sure that these packets

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are not inserted or modified by the attacker; likewise the liability of drivers should also be
established that they inform the traffic environment correctly and within time. These security
problems do not similar to general communication network. The size of network, mobility,
geographic relevancy etc makes the implementation difficult and distinct from other network
security.
Security Challenges in VANET: The challenges of security must be considered during the
design of VANET architecture, security protocols, cryptographic algorithm etc. The following
list presents some security challenges:
Real time Constraint: VANET is time critical where safety related message should be
delivered with 100ms transmission delay. So to achieve real time constraint, fast
cryptographic algorithm should be used. Message and entity authentication must be done in
time.
Data Consistency Liability: In VANET even authenticate node can perform malicious
activities that can cause accidents or disturb the network. Hence a mechanism should be
designed to avoid this inconsistency. Correlation among the received data from different node
on particular information may avoid this type of inconsistency.
Low tolerance for error: Some protocols are designed on the basis of probability. VANET
uses life critical information on which action is performed in very short time. A small error in
probabilistic algorithm may cause harm.
Key Distribution: All the security mechanisms implemented in VANET dependent on keys.
Each message is encrypted and need to decrypt at receiver end either with same key or
different key. Also different manufacturer can install keys in different ways and in public key
infrastructure trust on CA become major issue. Therefore distribution of keys among vehicles
is a major challenge in designing a security protocols.
High Mobility: The computational capability and energy supply in VANET is same as the
wired network node but the high mobility of VANET nodes requires the less execution time
of security protocols for same throughput that wired network produces. Hence the design of
security protocols must use the approaches to reduce the execution time. Two approaches can
be implementing to meet this requirement.
Low complexity security algorithms: Current security protocols such as SSL/TLS, DTLS,
WTLS, generally uses RSA based public key cryptography. RSA algorithm uses the integer
factorization on large prime no. which is NP-Hard. Hence decryption of the message that used
RSA algorithm becomes very complex and time consuming. Hence there is need to implement
alternate cryptographic algorithm like Elliptic curve cryptosystems and lattice based
cryptosystems. For bulk data encryption AES can be used.
Transport protocol choice: To secure transaction over IP, DTLS should be preferred over TLS
as DTLS operates over connectionless transport layer. IPSec which secures IP traffic should
be avoided as it requires too many messages to set up. However IPSec and TLS can be used
when vehicles are not in motion.
Security requirements in VANET

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VANET must satisfy some security requirements before they are deployed. A security
system in VANET should satisfy the following requirements:
Authentication: Authentication ensures that the message is generated by the legitimate user.
In VANET a vehicle reacts upon the information came from the other vehicle hence
authentication must be satisfied.
Availability: Availability requires that the information must be available to the legitimate
users. DoS Attacks can bring down the network and hence information cannot be shared.
Non-Repudiation: Non-repudiation means a node cannot deny that he/she does not transmit
the message. It may be crucial to determine the correct sequence in crash reconstruction.
Privacy: The privacy of a node against the unauthorised node should be guaranteed. This is
required to eliminate the massage delay attacks.
Data Verification: A regular verification of data is required to eliminate the false messaging.
Attackers on Vehicular Network
To secure the VANET, first we have to discover who are the attacker, their nature, and
capacity to damage the system. On the basis of capacity these attackers may be three type
Insider and Outsider: Insiders are the authenticated members of network whereas Outsiders
are the intruders and hence limited capacity to attack.
Malicious and Rational: Malicious attackers have not any personal benefit to attack; they
just harm the functionality of the network. Rational attackers have the personal profit hence
they are predictable.
Active and Passive: Active attackers generate signals or packet whereas passive attackers
only sense the network.
Attacks in the VANET
To get better protection from attackers we must have the knowledge about the attacks
in VANET against security requirements. Attacks on different security requirement are given
below:
Impersonate: In impersonate attack attacker assumes the identity and privileges of an
authorized node, either to make use of network resources that may not be available to it under
normal circumstances, or to disrupt the normal functioning of the network. This type of attack
is performed by active attackers.
They may be insider or outsiders. This attack is multilayer attack means attacker can exploit
either network layer, application layer or transport layer vulnerability. This attack can be
performed in two ways: a) False attribute possession: In this scheme an attacker steals some
property of legitimate user and later with the use of attribute claims that it is who (legitimate
user) that sent this message. By using this type attack a normal vehicle can claim that he/she is

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a police or fire protector to free the traffic. b) Sybil: In this type of attack, an attacker use
different identities at the same time.
Session hijacking: Most authentication process is done at the start of the session. Hence it is
easy to hijack the session after connection establishment. In this attack attackers take control
of session between nodes.
Identity revealing: Generally a driver is itself owner of the vehicles hence getting owner‘s
identity can put the privacy at risk.
Location Tracking: The location of a given moment or the path followed along a period of
time can be used to trace the vehicle and get information of driver.
Repudiation: The main threat in repudiation is denial or attempt to denial by a node involved
in communication. This is different from the impersonate attack. In this attack two or more
entity has common identity hence it is easy to get indistinguishable and hence they can be
repudiated.
Eavesdropping: Eavesdropping is a most common attack on confidentiality. This attack is
belongs to network layer attack and passive in nature. The main goal of this attack is to get
access of confidential data. • Denial of Service: DoS attacks are most prominent attack in this
category. In this attack attacker prevents the legitimate user to use the service from the victim
node. DoS attacks can be carried out in many ways.
Jamming: In this technique the attacker senses the physical channel and gets the information
about the frequency at which the receiver receives the signal. Then he transmits the signal on
the channel so that channel is jam.
SYN Flooding: In this mechanism large no of SYN request is sent to the victim node,
spoofing the sender address. The victim node send back the SYN-ACK to the spoofed address
but victim node does not get any ACK packet in return. This result too half opens connection
to handle by a victim node‘s buffer. As a consequence the legitimate request is discarded.
Distributed DoS attack: This is another form Dos attack. In this attack, multiple attackers
attack the victim node and prevents legitimate user from accessing the service.
Routing attack: Routing attacks re the attacks which exploits the vulnerability of network
layer routing protocols. In this type of attack the attacker either drops the packet or disturbs
the routing process of the network. Following are the most common routing attacks in the
VANET:
Black Hole attack: In this type of attack, the attacker firstly attracts the nodes to transmit the
packet through itself. It can be done by continuous sending the malicious route reply with
fresh route and low hop count. After attracting the node, when the packet is forwarded
through this node, it silently drops the packet.
Worm Hole attack: In this attack, an adversary receives packets at one point in the network,
tunnels them to another point in the network, and then replays them into the network from that
point. This tunnel between two adversaries are called wormhole. It can be established through
a single long-range wireless link or a wired link between the two adversaries. Hence it is

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simple for the adversary to make the tunnelled packet arrive sooner than other packets
transmitted over a normal multi-hop route.
Gray Hole attack: This is the extension of black hole attack. In this type of attack the
malicious node behaves like the black node attack but it drops the packet selectively. This
selection can be of two type:
A malicious node can drop the packet of UDP whereas the TCP packet will be forwarded.
The malicious node can drop the packet on the basis of probabilistic distribution.
PART – A

1. What is meant by Ad-hoc network?

2. What are the basic principles of Ad-hoc networking?
3. What are the needs of ad hoc networks?
4. What are the advantages of ad hoc networks?
5. What are the key challenges in ad hoc networks?
6. What is meant by MANET?
7. Give the difference between cellular and ad-hoc networks. What are the advantages of
MANETs?
8. What are the disadvantages of MANET?
9. List out some of the applications of MANETs.
10. Analyze and list out the various design issues associated with MANET.
11. What is meant by routing in ad hoc networks?
12. Analyze the operational constraints (challenges) associated with MANET.
13. What are the advantages of MANETs?
14. What are the disadvantages of MANET?
15. List out some of the applications of
MANETs.
16. Analyze and list out the various design issues associated with MANET.
17. What is meant by routing in ad hoc networks?
18. Compare Link State and Distance Vector Routing.
19. Differentiate between MANET routing strategies with routing strategies of traditional
networks.
20. Give the classification of MANET routing protocols.
21. List the types of communication in MANET.
22. What is meant by VANET?
23. Mention the goals of VANET.
24. What are the characteristics of VANETs?
25. Mention the uses of VANET.

26. List out the applications of VANETs.

27. Compare MANET Vs VANET. May/June 2016

PART-B

1. MANET Routing protocols. [An] Nov/Dec 2014

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2. Explain the basic characteristics and applications of Mobile Ad hoc networks. [U]
May/June2016
3. Explain the various routing strategies in mobile ad-hoc networks.
4. Explain DSR Routing Protocol in detail. [An] May/June 2016
5. Explain the following: (a) DSDV routing protocol (b) Ad-hoc DSR routing protocol
6. Explain Dynamic Source Routing. [U] May/June2014
7. Discuss and detail the differences between DSDV and DSR routing protocols.
8. What are the differences between AODV and the standard distance vector algorithm?
Why are extensions needed?
9. Explain about Hybrid Routing protocols in MANETs.
10. Demonstrate how multicast routing is carried out in ad-hoc networks.
11. Define VANET? Explain how does it differ from MANET? Explain any one
application of VANET.
12. Draw and explain the architecture of VANET. [U] May/June 2016
13. Discuss about various schemes in VANET routing.
14. Explain the various security attacks on VANET. [U] May/June 2016

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