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UNIT III: MOBILE TELECOMMUNICATION SYSTEM

Global System for Mobile Communication (GSM) – General Packet Radio Service (GPRS) –
Universal Mobile Telecommunication System (UMTS).

3.1 GLOBAL SYSTEM FOR MOBILE COMMUNICATION (GSM)

GSM stands for Global System for Mobile Communication. It is a digital cellular
technology used for transmitting mobile voice and data services. The concept of GSM
emerged from a cell-based mobile radio system at Bell Laboratories in the early 1970s. GSM
is the name of a standardization group established in 1982 to create a common European
mobile telephone standard.

GSM is the most widely accepted standard in telecommunications and it is

implemented [Link] is a circuit-switched system that divides each 200 kHz channel
into eight 25 kHz time-slots. GSM operates on the mobile communication bands 900 MHz
and 1800 MHz in most parts of the world. In the US, GSM operates in the bands 850 MHz
and 1900 MHz.

GSM owns a market share of more than 70 percent of the world's digital cellular
subscribers. GSM makes use of narrowband Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)
technique for transmitting signals. GSM was developed using digital technology. It has an
ability to carry 64 kbps to 120 Mbps of data rates. Presently GSM supports more than one
billion mobile subscribers in more than 210 countries throughout the world.

GSM provides basic to advanced voice and data services including roaming service.
Roaming is the ability to use your GSM phone number in another GSM [Link]
digitizes and compresses data, then sends it down through a channel with two other streams of
user data, each in its own timeslot.

Why GSM?

Listed below are the features of GSM that account for its popularity and wide acceptance.

• Improved spectrum efficiency

• International roaming

• Low-cost mobile sets and base stations (BSs)

• High-quality speech

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• Compatibility with Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) and other telephone
company services

• Support for new services

GSM History

The following table shows some of the important events in the rollout of the GSM
system.

Years Events

1982 Conference of European Posts and Telegraph (CEPT) establishes a GSM

group to widen the standards for a pan-European cellular mobile system.

1985 A list of recommendations to be generated by the group is accepted.

1986 Executed field tests to check the different radio techniques recommended

for the air interface.

1987 Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) is chosen as the access method

(with Frequency Division Multiple Access [FDMA]). The initial

Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) is signed by telecommunication

operators representing 12 countries.

1988 GSM system is validated.

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1989 The European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI) was given

the responsibility of the GSM specifications.

1990 Phase 1 of the GSM specifications is delivered.

1991 Commercial launch of the GSM service occurs. The DCS1800

specifications are finalized.

1992 The addition of the countries that signed the GSM MoU takes place.

Coverage spreads to larger cities and airports.

1993 Coverage of main roads GSM services starts outside Europe.

1994 Data transmission capabilities launched. The number of networks rises to

69 in 43 countries by the end of 1994.

A GSM network comprises of many functional units. These functions and interfaces are
explained in this chapter. The GSM network can be broadly divided into:

• The Mobile Station (MS)

• The Base Station Subsystem (BSS)

• The Network Switching Subsystem (NSS)

• The Operation Support Subsystem (OSS)

Given below is a simple pictorial view of the GSM architecture.

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The additional components of the GSM architecture comprise of databases and

messaging systems functions:

• Home Location Register (HLR)

• Visitor Location Register (VLR)

• Equipment Identity Register (EIR)

• Authentication Center (AuC)

• SMS Serving Center (SMS SC)

• Gateway MSC (GMSC)

• Chargeback Center (CBC)

• Transcoder and Adaptation Unit (TRAU)

The following diagram shows the GSM network along with the added elements:

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The MS and the BSS communicate across the Um interface. It is also known as the air
interface or the radio link. The BSS communicates with the Network Service Switching
(NSS) center across the A interface.

GSM network areas

In a GSM network, the following areas are defined:

Cell : Cell is the basic service area; one BTS covers one cell. Each cell is given a Cell Global
Identity (CGI), a number that uniquely identifies the cell.

Location Area : A group of cells form a Location Area (LA). This is the area that is paged
when a subscriber gets an incoming call. Each LA is assigned a Location Area Identity (LAI).
Each LA is served by one or more BSCs.

MSC/VLR Service Area : The area covered by one MSC is called the MSC/VLR service
area.

PLMN : The area covered by one network operator is called the Public Land Mobile Network
(PLMN). A PLMN can contain one or more MSCs.

GSM protocol stack

GSM architecture is a layered model that is designed to allow communications

between two different systems. The lower layers assure the services of the upper-layer
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protocols. Each layer passes suitable notifications to ensure the transmitted data has been
formatted, transmitted, and received accurately. The GMS protocol stacks diagram is shown
below:

MS Protocols

Based on the interface, the GSM signalling protocol is assembled into three general layers:

Layer 1 : The physical layer.

Layer 2 : The data-link layer. Across the Um interface, the data-link layer is a modified
version of the Link access protocol for the D channel (LAP-D) protocol used in ISDN, called
Link access protocol on the Dm channel (LAP-Dm). Across the A interface, the Message
Transfer Part (MTP), Layer 2 of SS7 is used.

Layer 3 : GSM signalling protocol‘s third layer is divided into three sublayers:

Radio Resource Management (RR),

Mobility Management (MM), and

Connection Management (CM).

MS to BTS Protocols

The RR layer is the lower layer that manages a link, both radio and fixed, between the
MS and the MSC. For this formation, the main components involved are the MS, BSS, and
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MSC. The responsibility of the RR layer is to manage the RR-session, the time when a mobile
is in a dedicated mode, and the radio channels including the allocation of dedicated channels.

The MM layer is stacked above the RR layer. It handles the functions that arise from
the mobility of the subscriber, as well as the authentication and security aspects. Location
management is concerned with the procedures that enable the system to know the current
location of a powered-on MS so that incoming call routing can be completed.

The CM layer is the topmost layer of the GSM protocol stack. This layer is responsible
for Call Control, Supplementary Service Management, and Short Message Service
Management. Each of these services are treated as individual layer within the CM layer. Other
functions of the CC sub layer include call establishment, selection of the type of service
(including alternating between services during a call), and call release.

BSC Protocols

The BSC uses a different set of protocols after receiving the data from the BTS. The
Abis interface is used between the BTS and BSC. At this level, the radio resources at the
lower portion of Layer 3 are changed from the RR to the Base Transceiver Station
Management (BTSM). The BTS management layer is a relay function at the BTS to the BSC.

The RR protocols are responsible for the allocation and reallocation of traffic channels
between the MS and the BTS. These services include controlling the initial access to the
system, paging for MT calls, the handover of calls between cell sites, power control, and call
termination. The BSC still has some radio resource management in place for the frequency
coordination, frequency allocation, and the management of the overall network layer for the
Layer 2 interfaces.

To transit from the BSC to the MSC, the BSS mobile application part or the direct
application part is used, and SS7 protocols is applied by the relay, so that the MTP 1-3 can be
used as the prime architecture.

MSC Protocols

At the MSC, starting from the BSC, the information is mapped across the A interface
to the MTP Layers 1 through 3. Here, Base Station System Management Application Part
(BSS MAP) is said to be the equivalent set of radio resources. The relay process is finished by
the layers that are stacked on top of Layer 3 protocols, they are BSS MAP/DTAP, MM, and
CM. This completes the relay process.

To find and connect to the users across the network, MSCs interact using the control-
signaling network. Location registers are included in the MSC databases to assist in the role of
determining how and whether connections are to be made to roaming [Link] GSM MS

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user is given a HLR that in turn comprises of the user‘s location and subscribed services. VLR
is a separate register that is used to track the location of a user.

When the users move out of the HLR covered area, the VLR is notified by the MS to
find the location of the user. The VLR in turn, with the help of the control network, signals the
HLR of the MS‘s new location. With the help of location information contained in the user‘s
HLR, the MT calls can be routed to the user.

GSM addressing

SM treats the users and the equipment in different ways. Phone numbers, subscribers,
and equipment identifiers are some of the known ones. There are many other identifiers that
have been well-defined, which are required for the subscriber‘s mobility management and for
addressing the remaining network elements. Vital addresses and identifiers that are used in
GSM are addressed below.

International Mobile Station Equipment Identity (IMEI)

The International Mobile Station Equipment Identity (IMEI) looks more like a serial
number which distinctively identifies a mobile station internationally. This is allocated by the
equipment manufacturer and registered by the network operator, who stores it in the
Entrepreneurs-in-Residence (EIR). By means of IMEI, one recognizes obsolete, stolen, or
non-functional equipment.

Following are the parts of IMEI:

1. Type Approval Code (TAC) : 6 decimal places, centrally assigned.

2. Final Assembly Code (FAC) : 6 decimal places, assigned by the manufacturer.

3. Serial Number (SNR) : 6 decimal places, assigned by the manufacturer.

4. Spare (SP) : 1 decimal place.

Thus, IMEI = TAC + FAC + SNR + SP. It uniquely characterizes a mobile station and
gives clues about the manufacturer and the date of manufacturing.

International Mobile Subscriber Identity (IMSI)

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Every registered user has an original International Mobile Subscriber Identity (IMSI)
with a valid IMEI stored in their Subscriber Identity Module (SIM). IMSI comprises of the
following parts:

1. Mobile Country Code (MCC) : 3 decimal places, internationally standardized.

2. Mobile Network Code (MNC) : 2 decimal places, for unique identification of mobile
network within the country.

3. Mobile Subscriber Identification Number (MSIN) : Maximum 10 decimal places,

identification number of the subscriber in the home mobile network.

Mobile Subscriber ISDN Number (MSISDN)

The authentic telephone number of a mobile station is the Mobile Subscriber ISDN
Number (MSISDN). Based on the SIM, a mobile station can have many MSISDNs, as each
subscriber is assigned with a separate MSISDN to their SIM respectively.

Listed below is the structure followed by MSISDN categories, as they are defined
based on international ISDN number plan:

Country Code (CC) : Up to 3 decimal places.

National Destination Code (NDC) : Typically 2-3 decimal places.
Subscriber Number (SN) : Maximum 10 decimal places.

Mobile Station Roaming Number (MSRN)

Mobile Station Roaming Number (MSRN) is an interim location dependent ISDN

number, assigned to a mobile station by a regionally responsible Visitor Location Register
(VLA). Using MSRN, the incoming calls are channeled to the MS. The MSRN has the same
structure as the MSISDN.

• Country Code (CC) : of the visited network.

• National Destination Code (NDC) : of the visited network.

• Subscriber Number (SN) : in the current mobile network.

Location Area Identity (LAI)

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Within a PLMN, a Location Area identifies its own authentic Location Area Identity
(LAI). The LAI hierarchy is based on international standard and structured in a unique format
as mentioned below:

• Country Code (CC) : 3 decimal places.

• Mobile Network Code (MNC) : 2 decimal places.

• Location Area Code (LAC) : maximum 5 decimal places or maximum twice 8 bits
coded in hexadecimal (LAC < FFFF).
Temporary Mobile Subscriber Identity (TMSI)

Temporary Mobile Subscriber Identity (TMSI) can be assigned by the VLR, which is
responsible for the current location of a subscriber. The TMSI needs to have only local
significance in the area handled by the VLR. This is stored on the network side only in the
VLR and is not passed to the Home Location Register (HLR).

Together with the current location area, the TMSI identifies a subscriber uniquely. It
can contain up to 4 × 8 bits.

Local Mobile Subscriber Identity (LMSI)

Each mobile station can be assigned with a Local Mobile Subscriber Identity (LMSI),
which is an original key, by the VLR. This key can be used as the auxiliary searching key for
each mobile station within its region. It can also help accelerate the database access. An LMSI
is assigned if the mobile station is registered with the VLR and sent to the HLR. LMSI
comprises of four octets (4x8 bits).

Cell Identifier (CI)

Using a Cell Identifier (CI) (maximum 2 × 8) bits, the individual cells that are within
an LA can be recognized. When the Global Cell Identity (LAI + CI) calls are combined, then
it is uniquely defined.

GSM security

GSM is the most secured cellular telecommunications system available today. GSM
has its security methods standardized. GSM maintains end-to-end security by retaining the
confidentiality of calls and anonymity of the GSM subscriber.

Temporary identification numbers are assigned to the subscriber‘s number to maintain

the privacy of the user. The privacy of the communication is maintained by applying
encryption algorithms and frequency hopping that can be enabled using digital systems and
signaling.

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Mobile Station Authentication

The GSM network authenticates the identity of the subscriber through the use of a
challenge-response mechanism. A 128-bit Random Number (RAND) is sent to the MS. The
MS computes the 32-bit Signed Response (SRES) based on the encryption of the RAND with
the authentication algorithm (A3) using the individual subscriber authentication key (Ki).
Upon receiving the SRES from the subscriber, the GSM network repeats the calculation to
verify the identity of the subscriber.

The individual subscriber authentication key (Ki) is never transmitted over the radio
channel, as it is present in the subscriber's SIM, as well as the AUC, HLR, and VLR
databases. If the received SRES agrees with the calculated value, the MS has been
successfully authenticated and may continue. If the values do not match, the connection is
terminated and an authentication failure is indicated to the MS.

The calculation of the signed response is processed within the SIM. It provides
enhanced security, as confidential subscriber information such as the IMSI or the individual
subscriber authentication key (Ki) is never released from the SIM during the authentication
process.

Signaling and Data Confidentiality

The SIM contains the ciphering key generating algorithm (A8) that is used to produce
the 64-bit ciphering key (Kc). This key is computed by applying the same random number
(RAND) used in the authentication process to ciphering key generating algorithm (A8) with
the individual subscriber authentication key (Ki).

GSM provides an additional level of security by having a way to change the ciphering
key, making the system more resistant to eavesdropping. The ciphering key may be changed
at regular intervals as required. As in case of the authentication process, the
computation of the ciphering key (Kc) takes place internally within the SIM. Therefore,
sensitive information such as the individual subscriber authentication key (Ki) is never
revealed by the SIM.

Encrypted voice and data communications between the MS and the network is
accomplished by using the ciphering algorithm A5. Encrypted communication is initiated by a
ciphering mode request command from the GSM network. Upon receipt of this command, the
mobile station begins encryption and decryption of data using the ciphering algorithm (A5)
and the ciphering key (Kc).

Subscriber Identity Confidentiality

To ensure subscriber identity confidentiality, the Temporary Mobile Subscriber

Identity (TMSI) is used. Once the authentication and encryption procedures are done, the
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TMSI is sent to the mobile station. After the receipt, the mobile station responds. The TMSI
is valid in the location area in which it was issued. For communications outside the location
area, the Location Area Identification (LAI) is necessary in addition to the TMSI.

GSM Billing

GSM service providers are doing billing based on the services they are providing to
their customers. All the parameters are simple enough to charge a customer for the provided
services.

Telephony Service

These services can be charged on per call basis. The call initiator has to pay the
charges, and the incoming calls are nowadays free. A customer can be charged based on
different parameters such as:

• International call or long distance call.

• Local call.

• Call made during peak hours.

• Call made during night time.

• Discounted call during weekends.

• Call per minute or per second.

• Many more other criteria can be designed by a service provider to charge their
customers.
SMS Service

Most of the service providers charge their customer's SMS services based on the
number of text messages sent. There are other prime SMS services available where service
providers charge more than normal SMS charge. These services are being availed in
collaboration of Television Networks or Radio Networks to demand SMS from the
audiences.

Most of the time, the charges are paid by the SMS sender but for some services like
stocks and share prices, mobile banking facilities, and leisure booking services, etc. the
recipient of the SMS has to pay for the service.

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GPRS Services

Using GPRS service, you can browse, play games on the Internet, and download
movies. So a service provider will charge you based on the data uploaded as well as data
downloaded on your mobile phone. These charges will be based on per Kilo Byte data
downloaded/uploaded.

Additional parameter could be a QoS provided to you. If you want to watch a movie,
then a low QoS may work because some data loss may be acceptable, but if you are
downloading a zip file, then a single byte loss will corrupt your complete downloaded file.
Another parameter could be peak and off peak time to download a data file or to browse the
Internet.

Supplementary Services

Most of the supplementary services are being provided based on monthly rental or
absolutely free. For example, call waiting, call forwarding, calling number identification, and
call on hold are available at zero cost.

Call barring is a service, which service providers use just to recover their dues, etc.,
otherwise this service is not being used by any subscriber. Call conferencing service is a form
of simple telephone call where the customers are charged for multiple calls made at a time. No
service provider charges extra charge for this service.

Closed User Group (CUG) is very popular and is mainly being used to give special
discounts to the users if they are making calls to a particular defined group of subscribers.
Advice of Charge (AoC) can be charged based on number of queries made by a subscriber.

3.2 GENERAL PACKET RADIO SERVICE

General Packet Radio System is also known as GPRS is a third-generation step

toward internet access. GPRS is also known as GSM-IP that is a Global-System Mobile
Communications Internet Protocol as it keeps the users of this system online, allows to make
voice calls, and access internet on-the-go. Even Time-Division Multiple Access (TDMA)
users benefit from this system as it provides packet radio access.

GPRS also permits the network operators to execute an Internet Protocol (IP) based
core architecture for integrated voice and data applications that will continue to be used and
expanded for 3G services.

GPRS supersedes the wired connections, as this system has simplified access to the
packet data networks like the internet. The packet radio principle is employed by GPRS to
transport user data packets in a structure way between GSM mobile stations and external

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packet data networks. These packets can be directly routed to the packet switched networks
from the GPRS mobile stations.

In the current versions of GPRS, networks based on the Internet Protocol (IP) like the
global internet or private/corporate intranets and X.25 networks are supported.

Who owns GPRS ?

The GPRS specifications are written by the European Telecommunications Standard

Institute (ETSI), the European counterpart of the American National Standard Institute
(ANSI).

Key Features

Following three key features describe wireless packet data:

The always online feature - Removes the dial-up process, making applications only
one click away.

An upgrade to existing systems - Operators do not have to replace their equipment;

rather, GPRS is added on top of the existing infrastructure.

An integral part of future 3G systems - GPRS is the packet data core network for
3G systems EDGE and WCDMA.

Goals of GPRS

GPRS is the first step toward an end-to-end wireless infrastructure and has the following
goals:

• Open architecture

• Consistent IP services

• Same infrastructure for different air interfaces

• Integrated telephony and Internet infrastructure

• Leverage industry investment in IP

• Service innovation independent of infrastructure

Benefits of GPRS

Higher Data Rate

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GPRS benefits the users in many ways, one of which is higher data rates in turn of
shorter access times. In the typical GSM mobile, setup alone is a lengthy process and equally,
rates for data permission are restrained to 9.6 kbit/s. The session establishment time offered
while GPRS is in practice is lower than one second and ISDN-line data rates are up to many
10 kbit/s.

Easy Billing

GPRS packet transmission offers a more user-friendly billing than that offered by
circuit switched services. In circuit switched services, billing is based on the duration of the
connection. This is unsuitable for applications with bursty traffic. The user must pay for the
entire airtime, even for idle periods when no packets are sent (e.g., when the user reads a Web
page).

In contrast to this, with packet switched services, billing can be based on the amount
of transmitted data. The advantage for the user is that he or she can be "online" over a long
period of time but will be billed based on the transmitted data volume.

GPRS Architecture

GPRS architecture works on the same procedure like GSM network, but, has
additional entities that allow packet data transmission. This data network overlaps a second-
generation GSM network providing packet data transport at the rates from 9.6 to 171 kbps.
Along with the packet data transport the GSM network accommodates multiple users to share
the same air interface resources concurrently. Following is the GPRS Architecture diagram:

GPRS attempts to reuse the existing GSM network elements as much as possible, but
to effectively build a packet-based mobile cellular network, some new network elements,
interfaces, and protocols for handling packet traffic are required.

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Therefore, GPRS requires modifications to numerous GSM network elements as

summarized below:

GSM Network Element Modification or Upgrade Required for GPRS.

Mobile Station (MS) New Mobile Station is required to access GPRS services.

These new terminals will be backward compatible with

GSM for voice calls.

BTS A software upgrade is required in the existing Base

Transceiver Station(BTS).

BSC The Base Station Controller (BSC) requires a software

upgrade and the installation of new hardware called the

packet control unit (PCU). The PCU directs the data

traffic to the GPRS network and can be a separate

hardware element associated with the BSC.

GPRS Support Nodes (GSNs) The deployment of GPRS requires the installation of new

core network elements called the serving GPRS support

node (SGSN) and gateway GPRS support node (GGSN).

GPRS Mobile Stations

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New Mobile Stations (MS) are required to use GPRS services because existing GSM
phones do not handle the enhanced air interface or packet data. A variety of MS can exist,
including a high-speed version of current phones to support high-speed data access, a new
PDA device with an embedded GSM phone, and PC cards for laptop computers. These
mobile stations are backward compatible for making voice calls using GSM.

GPRS Base Station Subsystem

Each BSC requires the installation of one or more Packet Control Units (PCUs) and a
software upgrade. The PCU provides a physical and logical data interface to the Base Station
Subsystem (BSS) for packet data traffic. The BTS can also require a software upgrade but
typically does not require hardware enhancements.

When either voice or data traffic is originated at the subscriber mobile, it is transported
over the air interface to the BTS, and from the BTS to the BSC in the same way as a standard
GSM call. However, at the output of the BSC, the traffic is separated; voice is sent to the
Mobile Switching Center (MSC) per standard GSM, and data is sent to a new device called
the SGSN via the PCU over a Frame Relay interface.

GPRS Support Nodes

Following two new components, called Gateway GPRS Support Nodes (GSNs) and, Serving
GPRS Support Node (SGSN) are added:

Gateway GPRS Support Node (GGSN)

The Gateway GPRS Support Node acts as an interface and a router to external
networks. It contains routing information for GPRS mobiles, which is used to tunnel packets
through the IP based internal backbone to the correct Serving GPRS Support Node. The
GGSN also collects charging information connected to the use of the external data networks
and can act as a packet filter for incoming traffic.

Serving GPRS Support Node (SGSN)

The Serving GPRS Support Node is responsible for authentication of GPRS mobiles,
registration of mobiles in the network, mobility management, and collecting information on
charging for the use of the air interface.

Internal Backbone

The internal backbone is an IP based network used to carry packets between different
GSNs. Tunneling is used between SGSNs and GGSNs, so the internal backbone does not need

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any information about domains outside the GPRS network. Signaling from a GSN to a MSC,
HLR or EIR is done using SS7.

Routing Area

GPRS introduces the concept of a Routing Area. This concept is similar to Location
Area in GSM, except that it generally contains fewer cells. Because routing areas are smaller
than location areas, less radio resources are used while broadcasting a page message.

GPRS Protocol Stack

The flow of GPRS protocol stack and end-to-end message from MS to the GGSN is
displayed in the below diagram. GTP is the protocol used between the SGSN and GGSN
using the Gn interface. This is a Layer 3 tunneling protocol.

The process that takes place in the application looks like a normal IP sub-network for
the users both inside and outside the network. The vital thing that needs attention is, the
application communicates via standard IP, that is carried through the GPRS network and out
through the gateway GPRS. The packets that are mobile between the GGSN and the SGSN
use the GPRS tunneling protocol, this way the IP addresses located on the external side of the
GPRS network do not have deal with the internal backbone. UDP and IP are run by GTP.

SubNetwork Dependent Convergence Protocol (SNDCP) and Logical Link Control

(LLC) combination used in between the SGSN and the MS. The SNDCP flattens data to
reduce the load on the radio channel. A safe logical link by encrypting packets is provided by
LLC and the same LLC link is used as long as a mobile is under a single SGSN.

In case, the mobile moves to a new routing area that lies under a different SGSN; then,
the old LLC link is removed and a new link is established with the new Serving GSN X.25.
Services are provided by running X.25 on top of TCP/IP in the internal backbone.

GPRS Applications

GPRS has opened a wide range of unique services to the mobile wireless subscriber.
Some of the characteristics that have opened a market full of enhanced value services to the
users. Below are some of the characteristics:

Mobility - The ability to maintain constant voice and data communications while on
the move.

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Immediacy - Allows subscribers to obtain connectivity when needed, regardless of

location and without a lengthy login session.

Localization - Allows subscribers to obtain information relevant to their current

location.

Using the above three characteristics varied possible applications are being developed
to offer to the mobile subscribers. These applications, in general, can be divided into two
high-level categories:

Corporation

Consumer

• Communications - E-mail, fax, unified messaging and intranet/internet access, etc.

• Value-added services - Information services and games, etc.

• E-commerce - Retail, ticket purchasing, banking and financial trading, etc.

• Location-based applications - Navigation, traffic conditions, airline/rail schedules

and location finder, etc.

• Vertical applications - Freight delivery, fleet management and sales-force

automation.
• Advertising - Advertising may be location sensitive. For example, a user entering a

mall can receive advertisements specific to the stores in that mall.

Along with the above applications, non-voice services like SMS, MMS and voice calls
are also possible with GPRS. Closed User Group (CUG) is a common term used after
GPRS is in the market, in addition, it is planned to implement supplementary services,
such as Call Forwarding Unconditional (CFU), and Call Forwarding on Mobile
subscriber Not Reachable (CFNRc), and closed user group (CUG).

GPRS Quality Of Service

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Quality of Service (QoS) requirements of conventional mobile packet data

applications are in assorted forms. The QoS is a vital feature of GPRS services as there are
different QoS support requirements for assorted GPRS applications like realtime multimedia,
web browsing, and e-mail transfer.

GPRS allows defining QoS profiles using the following parameters :

• Service Precedence

• Reliability

• Delay and

• Throughput

These parameters are described below:

Service Precedence

The preference given to a service when compared to another service is known as Service
Precedence. This level of priority is classified into three levels called:

• High

• normal

• low

When there is network congestion, the packets of low priority are discarded as
compared to high or normal priority packets.

Reliability

This parameter signifies the transmission characteristics required by an application.

The reliability classes are defined which guarantee certain maximum values for the probability
of loss, duplication, mis-sequencing, and corruption of packets.

Delay

The delay is defined as the end-to-end transfer time between two communicating
mobile stations or between a mobile station and the GI interface to an external packet data
network.

This includes all delays within the GPRS network, e.g., the delay for request and
assignment of radio resources and the transit delay in the GPRS backbone network. Transfer

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delays outside the GPRS network, e.g., in external transit networks, are not taken into
account.

Throughput

The throughput specifies the maximum/peak bit rate and the mean bit rate. Using these
QoS classes, QoS profiles can be negotiated between the mobile user and the network for each
session, depending on the QoS demand and the available resources. The billing of the service
is then based on the transmitted data volume, the type of service, and the chosen QoS profile.

GPRS Mobile Station Class

Mobile Station Classes talk about the globally-known equipment handset which is also
known as Mobile Station (MS) and its three different classes. This equipment, more popular
as handset, is used to make phone calls and access data services. The MS comprises of
Terminal Equipment (TE) and Mobile Terminal (MT).

TE is the equipment that accommodates the applications and the user interaction,
while the MT is the part that connects to the network.

In the following example, Palm Pilot is TE and Mobile phone is MT.

In order to take advantage of the new GPRS services, we need new GPRS enabled
handsets. There are three different classes of GPRS terminal equipment’s:

Class A

Class A terminals can manage both packet data and voice simultaneously. Which
means, one needs two transceivers, as the handset has to send or receive data and voice at the
same time? This is the main reason why class A terminals are high-priced to manufacture
than class B and C terminals.

Class B

Class B terminals do not play the same role like Class A. These terminals can manage
either packet data or voice at a time. One can use a single transceiver for both, resulting in the
low cost of terminals.

For example, If a user is using the GPRS session (like WAP browsing, file transfer, etc.)
then this session is halted if he or she receives a call. This terminal does not allow both the

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sessions active in one go. This backlog needs rectification thereby giving the user a facility of
both receiving a call and maintaining the data session.

Class C

Class C terminals can manage either only packet data or only voice. Examples of class
C terminals are GPRS PCM/CIA cards, embedded modules in vending machines, and so on.
Due to the high cost of class A handsets, most handset manufacturers have announced that
their first handsets will be class B. Currently, work is going on in 3GPP to standardize a light
weight class A in order to make handsets with simultaneous voice and data available at a
reasonable cost.

GPRS Access Mode

The GPRS access modes specify whether or not the GGSN requests user authentication at the
access point to a Public Data Network (PDN). The available options are:

• Transparent - No security authorization/authentication is requested by the GGSN.

• Non-transparent - In this case, GGSN acts as a proxy for authenticating.

The GPRS transparent and non-transparent modes relate only to PDP type IPv4.

Transparent Mode

Transparent access pertains to a GPRS PLMN that is not involved in subscriber access
authorization and authentication. Access to PDN-related security procedures is transparent to
GSNs. In transparent access mode, the MS is given an address belonging to the operator or
any other addressing space of domain. The address is given either at subscription as a static
address or at PDP context activation, as a dynamic address.

The dynamic address is allocated from a Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP)
server in the GPRS network. Any user authentication is done within the GPRS network. No
RADIUS authentication is performed; only IMSI-based authentication (from the subscriber
identity module in the handset) is done.

Non Transparent Mode

Non-transparent access to an intranet/ISP means that the PLMN plays a role in the
intranet/ISP authentication of the MS. Non-transparent access uses the Password

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Authentication Protocol (PAP) or Challenge Handshake Authentication Protocol (CHAP)

message issued by the mobile terminal and piggybacked in the GTP PDP context activation
message. This message is used to build a RADIUS request toward the RADIUS server
associated with the access point name (APN).

GPRS Access Point Name

The GPRS standards define a network identity called an Access Point Name (APN).
An APN identifies a PDN that is accessible from a GGSN node in a GPRS network. In GPRS,
only the APN is used to select the target network. To configure an APN, the operator
configures three elements on the GSN node:

• Access point - Defines an APN and its associated access characteristics,

including security (RADIUS), dynamic address allocation (DHCP), and DNS
services.

• Access point list - Defines a logical interface that is associated with the virtual
template.

• Access group - Defines whether access is permitted between the PDN and the
MS.

GPRS Billing

As packet data is introduced into mobile systems, the question of how to bill for the
services arises. Always online and paying by the minute does not sound all that appealing.
Here, we describe the possibilities but it totally depends on different service providers, how
they want to charge their customers.

The SGSN and GGSN register all possible aspects of a GPRS user's behaviour and
generate billing information accordingly. This information is gathered in so-called Charging
Data Records (CDR) and is delivered to a billing gateway.

The GPRS service charging can be based on the following parameters:

• Volume - The amount of bytes transferred, i.e., downloaded and uploaded.

• Duration - The duration of a PDP context session.

• Time - Date, time of day, and day of the week (enabling lower tariffs at off peak
hours).

• Final destination - A subscriber could be charged for access to the specific network,
such as through a proxy server.

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• Location - The current location of the subscriber.

• Quality of Service - Pay more for higher network priority.

• SMS - The SGSN will produce specific CDRs for SMS.

• Served IMSI/subscriber - Different subscriber classes (different tariffs for frequent

users, businesses, or private users).

• Reverse charging - The receiving subscriber is not charged for the received data;
instead, the sending party is charged.

• Free of charge - Specified data to be free of charge.

• Flat rate - A fixed monthly fee.

• Bearer service - Charging based on different bearer services (for an operator who has
several networks, such as GSM900 and GSM1800, and who wants to promote usage
of one of the networks). Or, perhaps the bearer service would be good for areas where
it would be cheaper for the operator to offer services from a wireless LAN rather than
from the GSM network.

3.3 UNIVERSAL MOBILE TELECOMMUNICATION SYSTEM

The Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS) is a third generation

mobile cellular system for networks based on the GSM standard. Developed and maintained
by the 3GPP (3rd Generation Partnership Project), UMTS is a component of the Standard
International Union all IMT-2000 telecommunications and compares it with the standard set
for CDMA2000 networks based on competition cdma One technology. UMTS uses wideband
code division multiple access (W-CDMA) radio access technology to provide greater spectral
efficiency and bandwidth mobile network operators.

NETWORK EVOLUTION

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An Evolution that Makes Sense

HSUPA : High Speed Uplink Packet Access

HSDPA : High speed downlink packet access

The main idea behind 3G is to prepare a universal infrastructure able to carry existing
and also future services. The infrastructure should be so designed that technology changes
and evolution can be adapted to the network without causing uncertainties to the existing
services using the existing network structure.

WCDMA Technology

The first Multiple Access Third Generation Partnership Project (3GPP) Wideband
Code Division networks (WCDMA) were launched in 2002. At the end of 2005, there were
100 WCDMA networks open and a total of more than 150 operators with licenses for
frequencies WCDMA operation. Currently, WCDMA networks are deployed in UMTS band
of around 2 GHz in Europe and Asia, including Japan and America Korea.

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WCDMA is deployed in the 850 and 1900 of the existing frequency allocations and
the new 3G band 1700/2100 should be available in the near future. 3GPP has defined
WCDMA operation for several additional bands, which are expected to be commissioned in
the coming years. As WCDMA mobile penetration increases, it allows WCDMA networks to
carry a greater share of voice and data traffic.

WCDMA technology provides some advantages for the operator in that it allows the
data, but also improves the voice of base. Voice capacity offered is very high due to
interference control mechanisms, including frequency reuse of 1, fast power control, and soft
handover. WCDMA can offer a lot more voice minutes to customers. Meanwhile WCDMA
can also improve broadband voice service with AMR codec, which clearly provides better
voice quality than fixed telephone landline. In short, WCDMA can offer more voice minutes
with better quality.

In addition to the high spectral efficiency, third-generation (3G) WCDMA provides

even more dramatic change in capacity of the base station and the efficiency of the equipment.
The high level of integration in the WCDMA is achieved due to the broadband carrier: a large
number of users supported by the carrier, and less radio frequency (RF) carriers are required
to provide the same capacity.

With less RF parts and more digital baseband processing, WCDMA can take
advantage of the rapid evolution of digital signal processing capability. The level of
integration of the high base station enables efficient building high capacity sites since the
complexity of RF combiners, additional antennas or power cables can be avoided. WCDMA
operators are able to provide useful data services, including navigation, person to person video
calls, sports and video and new mobile TV clips.

WCDMA enables simultaneous voice and data which allows, for example, browsing or
email when voice conferencing or video sharing in real time during voice calls.

The operators also offer mobile connectivity to the Internet and corporate intranet with
maximum bit rate of 384 kbps downlink and both uplink. The first terminals and networks
have been limited to 64 to 128 kbps uplink while the latter products provide 384 kbps uplink.

HSPA Standardization

High-speed downlink packet access (HSDPA) was standardized as part of 3GPP

Release 5 with the first specification version in March 2002. High-speed uplink packet access
(HSUPA) was part of 3GPP Release 6 with the first specification version in December 2004.
HSDPA and HSUPA together are called High-Speed Packet Access‘ (HSPA).

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The first commercial HSDPA networks were available at the end of 2005 and the
commercial HSUPA networks were available on 2007. The HSDPA peak data rate available
in the terminals is initially 1.8Mbps and will increase to 3.6 and 7.2 Mbps during 2006 and
2007, and later on 10Mbps and beyond 10Mbps. The HSUPA peak data rate in the initial
phase was 1–2 Mbps and the second phase was 3–4Mbps.

HSPA is deployed over the WCDMA network on the same carrier or - for high
capacity and high speed solution - using another carrier. In both cases, WCDMA and HSPA
can share all the network elements in the core network and the radio network comprising
base stations, radio network controller (RNC), Serving GPRS Support Node (SGSN) and the
Gateway GPRS Support Node (GGSN). WCDMA and HSPA also share the site base station
antennas and antenna cables.

The upgrade WCDMA HSPA requires new software and potentially new equipment
in the base station and RNC to support the rate and higher data capacity. Because of the
shared infrastructure between WCDMA and HSPA, the cost of the upgrade WCDMA HSPA
is very low compared to the construction of a new stand-alone data network.

UMTS - Radio Interface and Radio Network Aspects

After the introduction of UMTS the amount of wide area data transmission by mobile
users had picked up. But for the local wireless transmissions such as WLAN and DSL,
technology has increased at a much higher rate. Hence, it was important to consider the data
transmission rates equal to the category of fixed line broadband, when WIMAX has already
set high targets for transmission rates. It was clear that the new 3GPP radio technology
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Evolved UTRA (E-UTRA, synonymous with the LTE radio interface) had to become strongly
competitive in all respect and for that following target transmission rates were defined:

• Downlink: 100 Mb/s

• Uplink: 50 Mb/s

Above numbers are only valid for a reference configuration of two antennas for
reception and one transmit antenna in the terminal, and within a 20 MHz spectrum allocation.

UMTS – All IP Vision

A very general principle was set forth for the Evolved 3GPP system. It should ―all
IP‖, means that the IP connectivity is the basic service which is provided to the users. All other
layer services like voice, video, messaging, etc. are built on that. Looking at the protocol
stacks for interfaces between the network nodes, it is clear that simple model of IP is not
applicable to a mobile network.

There are virtual layers in between, which is not applicable to a mobile network. There
are virtual layer in between, in the form of ―tunnels‖, providing the three aspects - mobility,
security, and quality of service. Resulting, IP based protocols appear both on the transport
layer (between network nodes) and on higher layers.

UMTS – Requirements of the New Architecture

There is a new architecture that covers good scalability, separately for user plane and
control plane. There is a need for different types of terminal mobility support that are: fixed,
nomadic, and mobile terminals. The minimum transmission and signalling overhead
especially in air, in an idle mode of the dual mode UE signalling should be minimized, in the
radio channel multicast capability.

It is required to be reused or extended, as roaming and network sharing restrictions,

compatible with traditional principles established roaming concept, quite naturally, the
maximum transmission delay required is equivalent to the fixed network, specifically less than
5 milliseconds, set to control plane is less than 200 milliseconds delay target.

Looking at the evolution of the 3GPP system in full, it may not seem less complex
than traditional 3GPP system, but this is due to the huge increase in functionality. Another
strong desire is to arrive at a flat structure, reducing CAPEX/OPEX for operators in the 3GPP
architecture carriers.

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Powerful control functions should also be maintained with the new 3GPP systems,
both real-time seamless operation (for example, VoIP) and non-real-time applications and
services. The system should perform well for VoIP services in both the scenarios. Special
attention is also paid to the seamless continuity with legacy systems (3GPP and 3GPP2),
supports the visited network traffic local breakout of voice communications.

UMTS – Security and Privacy

Visitor Location Register (VLR) and SNB are used to keep track of all the mobile
stations that are currently connected to the network. Each subscriber can be identified by its
International Mobile Subscriber Identity (IMSI). To protect against profiling attacks, the
permanent identifier is sent over the air interface as infrequently as possible. Instead, local
identities Temporary Mobile Subscriber force (TMSI) is used to identify a subscriber
whenever possible.

Each UMTS subscriber has a dedicated home network with which it shares a secret
key K i long term. The Home Location Register (HLR) keeps track of the current location of
all the home network subscribers. Mutual authentication between a mobile station and a
visited network is carried out with the support of the current GSN (SGSN) and the MSC /
VLR, respectively. UMTS supports encryption of the radio interface and the integrity
protection of signaling messages.

UMTS – WCDMA Technology

The first Multiple Access Third Generation Partnership Project (3GPP) Wideband
Code Division networks (WCDMA) were launched in 2002. At the end of 2005, there were
100 WCDMA networks open and a total of more than 150 operators with licenses for
frequencies WCDMA operation. Currently, WCDMA networks are deployed in UMTS band
of around 2 GHz in Europe and Asia, including Japan and America Korea. WCDMA is
deployed in the 850 and 1900 of the existing frequency allocations and the new 3G band
1700/2100 should be available in the near future. 3GPP has defined WCDMA operation for
several additional bands, which are expected to be commissioned in the coming years.

As WCDMA mobile penetration increases, it allows WCDMA networks to carry a

greater share of voice and data traffic. WCDMA technology provides some advantages for the
operator in that it allows the data, but also improves the voice of base. Voice capacity offered
is very high due to interference control mechanisms, including frequency reuse of 1, fast
power control, and soft handover.

WCDMA can offer a lot more voice minutes to customers. Meanwhile WCDMA can
also improve broadband voice service with AMR codec, which clearly provides better voice
quality than fixed telephone landline. In short, WCDMA can offer more voice minutes with
better quality.

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In addition to the high spectral efficiency, third-generation (3G) WCDMA provides

even more dramatic change in capacity of the base station and the efficiency of the equipment.
The high level of integration in the WCDMA is achieved due to the broadband carrier: a large
number of users supported by the carrier, and less radio frequency (RF) carriers are required
to provide the same capacity.

With less RF parts and more digital baseband processing, WCDMA can take
advantage of the rapid evolution of digital signal processing capability. The level of
integration of the high base station enables efficient building high capacity sites since the
complexity of RF combiners, additional antennas or power cables can be avoided. WCDMA
operators are able to provide useful data services, including navigation, person to person video
calls, sports and video and new mobile TV clips.

WCDMA enables simultaneous voice and data which allows, for example, browsing
or email when voice conferencing or video sharing in real time during voice calls.

The operators also offer mobile connectivity to the Internet and corporate intranet with
maximum bit rate of 384 kbps downlink and both uplink. The first terminals and networks
have been limited to 64 to 128 kbps uplink while the latter products provide 384 kbps uplink.

WCDMA-3G

3G wireless service has been designed to provide high data speeds, always-on data
access, and greater voice capacity. Listed below are a few notable points: The high data
speeds, measured in Mbps, enable full motion video, high-speed internet access and video-
conferencing. 3G technology standards include UMTS, based on WCDMA technology (quite
often the two terms are used interchangeably) and CDMA2000, which is the outgrowth of the
earlier CDMA 2G technology.

UMTS standard is generally preferred by countries that use GSM network.

CDMA2000 has various types, including 1xRTT, 1xEV-DO and 1xEV-DV. The data rates
they offer range from 144 kbps to more than 2 mbps.

Sub-systems of 3G Network

A GSM system is basically designed as a combination of three major subsystems:

• Network Subsystem (NSS): MSC/VLR, HLR, AuC, SMSC, EIR, MGW. Common for
both 2G & 3G Network.
• UTRAN: RNC & RBS.
• Operation and maintenance Support Subsystem (OSS).

• IuCS: Between RNC and MSC for speech & Circuit data;

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• IuPS: Between RNC & SGSN for packet data;

• Uu interface: Between the RNC and MS.

UMTS – 3GPP

3rd Generation Partnership Project or 3GPP, is the standardization group for mobile
networks and is in existence since 1998. 3GPP specification come in bundles called Release.

3rd Generation Partnership Project (3GPP)

3GPP releases are from Release 99 to Release 7.

Release Published Key Architectural Features

Release 99 March 2000 UTRAN, USIM

Release 4 March 2001 MSC Split into MSC server and Media Gateway

Release 5 March 2002 IMS, HSPDA, IP based UTRAN

Release 6 March 2005 I-WLAN, HSUPA, MBMS, IMS

Release 7 Dec 2007 Unified PCC, Direct Tunnel, MIMO, HSPA+, IMS, VCC

The network entities in brief are:

UE User Equipment: the mobile terminal

BTS Base Transceiver Station: the 2G/2,5G radio base station

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BSC Base Station Controller: a controlling node in the 2G radio network

NodeB 3G radio base station

RNC network Radio NW controller: controlling and concentrating node in the 3G radio

(G)MSC Nodes (Gateway) Mobile Switching Center: circuit switched core network

S/GGSN Nodes Serving/Gateway GPRS Support Node: packet switched core network

HLR/HSS base Home Location Register / Home Subscription Server: central data

PCRF Policy and Charging Rules Function: a control node for policy

management and charging

3rd Generation Partnership Project 2 (3GPP2)

3GPP2 is the corresponding part of 3GPP market. 3GPP2 standards body has also
developed a large set of specifications describing own mobile network technology, the
current generation being labelled as CDMA2000 ©. 3GPP2 is 3GPP concepts and solutions,
but is chosen selectively different. Regarding LTE, there has been a growing interest of
3GPP2 operators in recent years to allow between flexible and efficient. The inheritance
3GPP2 technology includes a component called 1xRTT CS and PS component (EVDO vs
eHRPD). 3GPP2 consider their (eHRPD) high-speed packet data network as equivalent to
3GPP old system, the right to transfer procedures optimized specially designed.
Architecture of the 3GPP System
The overall architecture of the 3GPP, evolved system as well as the core and access
networks already existing 3GPP defined are called "legacy 3GPP system".

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The access networks which are not defined by the 3GPP, but may be used in
conjunction with the evolved 3GPP system are called "non-3GPP access networks".
The area of service must be understood as the multitude of IP services, so in general
they are represented and implemented by packet data networks (PDN). IP service can simply
offer a raw IP connectivity (i.e. allowing an internet connection), providing a connection to a
corporate network, or an advanced IP-based control functionality such as telephony and
instant messaging via IMS.
It is called "Evolved UTRAN" (EUTRAN). GERAN and UTRAN are the existing
radio access networks and are connected to the legacy PS domain. Evolved Packet Core
(EPC) in addition to the basic functions to manage packet routing and forwarding (for the
transport of user data) contains all the features necessary to control especially for mobility,
session handling, safety and load.
For interworking with legacy CS domain, the CS core network should be considered
as well and interfaced with the backend IMS. The dotted arrow indicates an optional
interconnection between legacy CS core networks and the new network Evolved Packet Core,
the decline in profit to the CS domain for voice services, if necessary.
UMTS – Radio Access Network
The more general term "Evolved Radio Access Network" (eRAN), can also be used as
part of signaling protocols, as the term "access stratum" (AS) can be used. The comparison
reveals that E-UTRAN consists of one type of nodes, namely Evolved Node B (eNodeB), and
the variety of interconnections is reduced to a minimum. eNodeB is a radio base station and
transmits/receives via its antenna in an area (cell), limited by physical factors (signal strength,
interference conditions, and conditions of radio wave propagation).
It has logical interfaces X2 with neighboring eNodeB and the EPC via S1.
Both have a control part (that is, say for signaling) and a user plane part (for payload
data). Point to the EU reference (which includes radio link interface and a mobile network
protocol stack bound) is called "LTE-U u" to indicate that it differs from the legacy
counterpart EU X2 connectivity neighboring eNodeBs. They may be considered for most of
the E-UTRAN and is used in most cases of handovers between radio cells.
As the UE moves, long handover preparation is done via signaling, through X2
between the two data eNodeBs and affected users can be transmitted between them for a short
period of time. Only in special cases, it may happen that X2 is not configured for eNodeB
between two neighbors. In this case transfers are always supported, but the preparation of
transfer and the data transmission is then made via the EPC. Accordingly, higher latency and
less "homogeneity" must therefore be provided.
In more detail, the functions performed by the eNodeB are:

• Radio Resource Management: Radio Bearer Control, Radio Admission Control,

Connection Control Mobility, dynamic allocation of resources (i.e. scheduling) to
UES as uplink and downlink.

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• Header compression of IP and encryption of user data stream.

• Forwarding the data packets of user plane to the EPC (especially, toward the GW
node service).

• Transport level packet marking in the uplink, for example, DiffServ code point
setting, based on the QoS class index (QCI) of the EPS bearer associated.

• Planning and delivery of paging messages (on request of MS).

• Planning and transmission of broadcast information (origin of the MME or O & M).

• Measurement configuration delivering and reporting on the extent of mobility and

programming.

UMTS – evolved packet core

By the early architectural work for the system evolved 3GPP, two views on the
implementation of mobility with the user plane and control plane protocols were presented.
The first was promoted as the good performance of the GPRS Tunnelling Protocol (GTP),
while the other pushed for the new (and the so-called "base" of the IETF) protocols. Both had
good arguments on their side:

• GTP evolution : This protocol has proven its usefulness and capabilities to operators,
and was very successful in the large scale operations. It was designed exactly to the
needs of the mobile networks PS.

• IETF based protocols : IETF is the de facto standards body for the internet. Their
mobility protocols have evolved from focusing on mobile IP-based network client to
"Proxy Mobile IP (MIP)." PMIP was standardized in 3GPP Evolved parallel system.
(But Mobile IP client base is used in EPS in conjunction with non-3GPP access
support.)

EPC for 3GPP access in non-roaming

The functions provided by the reference points and the protocols employed are:

LTE-Uu

LTE-Uu is the point of reference for radio interface between EU and eNodeB,
encompasses control plane and user plane. The top layer of the control plan is called "Radio

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Resource Control" (RRC). It is stacked on "Packet Data Convergence Protocol" (PDCP),

Radio Link Control and MAC layers.

S1-U

SI-U is the point for user plane traffic between eNodeB and serve GW reference. The
main activity via this benchmark is to transfer IP packets encapsulated users arising from
traffic or tunnel shape. Encapsulation is needed to realize the virtual IP link between eNodeB
and GW service, even during the movement of EU, and thus enable mobility. The protocol
used is based on GTP-U.

S1-MME

S1-MME is the point for the control plane between eNodeB and MME reference. All
control activities are carried out on it, for example, signalling for attachment, detachment, and
the establishment of the support of the change, safety procedures, etc. Note that some of this
traffic is transparent to the E-UTRAN and is exchanged directly between EU and MS, it is a
part called "non-access stratum" (NAS) signalling.

S5

S5 is the benchmark that includes the control and user plane between GW and PDN
GW Service and applies only if both nodes reside in the HPLMN; the corresponding reference
point when serving GW is VPLMN is called S8. As explained above, two protocol variants
are possible here, an enhanced GPRS Tunnelling Protocol (GTP) and Proxy Mobile IP
(PMIP).

S6a

S6a is the reference point for the exchange of information relating to subscriptions
equipment (download and purging). It corresponds to Gr and D reference point in the existing
system, and is based on the DIAMETER protocol.

SGi

This is the point of exit for DPR, and corresponds to the Gi reference point GPRS and
Wi in I-WLAN. IETF protocols are based here for the user plane (i.e. IPv4 and IPv6 packet
forwarding) protocols and control plane as DHCP and radius/diameter for configuring IP
address/external network protocol are used.

S10

S10 is a reference point for the MME relocation purposes. It is a pure control plane
interface and advanced GTP-C protocol is used for this purpose.
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S11

S11 is a reference point for the existing control plane between MME and GW service.
It employs the advanced GTP-C (GTP-C v2) protocol. The holder(s) of data between eNodeB
and serve GW are controlled by the concatenation S1-S11 and MME.

S13

S13 is the reference point for Equipment Identity Register (EIR) and MME, and it is
used for identity control (e.g. based on IMEI, if blacklisted). It uses the diameter protocol
SCTP.

Gx

Gx is the reference point of the QoS policy filtering policy and control the load
between PCRF and PDN GW. It is used to provide filters and pricing rules. The protocol used
is the DIAMETER.

Gxc

Gxc is the reference point that exists in over Gx but is located between GW and PCRF
and serves only if PMIP is used on S5 or S8.

Rx

Rx is defined as an application function (AF), located in NDS and PCRF for the
exchange of policy and billing information; it uses the DIAMETER protocol.

EPC for 3GPP Access in Roaming

In roaming this case the user plane either:

Extends back to the HPLMN (via an interconnection network), which means that all
EU user traffic is routed through a PDN GW in the HPLMN, where the DPRs are
connected;or For the sake of a more optimal way of traffic, it leaves a PDN GW in the
VPLMN to a local PDN.

The first is called "home routed traffic" and the second is called "local breakout".
(Note that the second term is also used in the discussion of traffic optimization for home
NBs/eNodeB, but with a different meaning because in the concept of roaming 3GPP, the
control plan always involves the HPLMN).

Interworking between EPC and Legacy

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From the beginning, it was clear that the 3GPP Evolved system will interoperate
seamlessly with existing 2G and 3G systems, 3GPP PS widely deployed or, more precisely,
with GERAN and UTRAN GPRS base (For aspects of interworking with the old CS system
for the treatment of optimized voice).

The question of the basic architectural design to 2G/3G in EPS is the location of the
GGSN map. Two versions are available, and both are supported:

The GW used : It is the normal case where serving the GW ends the user plane (as
seen in the existing GPRS network).The control plan is completed in the MME, according to
the distribution of users and control plane in EPC. S3 and S4 reference points are introduced,
and they are based on GTP-U and GTP-C, correspondingly. S5/S8 is chained to the PDN GW.
The advantage is that interoperability is smooth and optimized. The downside is that for this
kind of interoperability SGSN must be upgraded to Rel. 8 (due to the necessary support new
features on S3 and S4).

The PDN GW : In this case the unchanged benchmark inheritance Gn (when roaming,
it would Gp) is reused between SGSN and PDN GW, for both control and user plane. The
advantage of this use is that SGSN can be pre-Rel. 8. Furthermore, it carries a certain
restriction on IP versions, transfer and S5 / S8 protocol.

Interworking with Legacy 3GPP CS System

During the 3GPP Evolved design phase, it became clear that the legacy CS system,
with its most important service "voice" communication, could not be ignored by the new
system. The operators were simply too related investments in the field, and so very efficient
interworking was requested.

Two solutions have been developed:

• Single Radio Voice Call Continuity (SRVCC) for transferring voice calls from LTE
(with voice over IMS) to the legacy system.

• CS fallback: Enabling a temporary move to the legacy CS before a CS incoming or

outgoing activity is performed.

Single Radio Voice Call Continuity (SRVCC)

In this solution chosen by 3GPP for SRVCC with GERAN/UTRAN, a specially reinforced
MSC is connected via a new interface control plane for MME. Note that the MSC serving the
EU can be different than supporting the Sv interface. In the IMS, an application server (AS)
for SRVCC is necessary. Sv is based on GTPv2 and helps prepare resources in the target
system (access and core network and the interconnection between CS and IMS domain), while
being connected to access the source.

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Similarly, with SRVCC CDMA 1xRTT requires interworking 1xRTT Server (IWS),
which supports the interface and signal relay from / to 1xRTT MSC serving the UE S102 with
the same purpose. S102 is a tunnel interface and transmits 1xRTT signaling messages;
between MME and UE these are encapsulated.

CS Fallback

Serving GW and PDN GW are not separated (S5/S8 is not exposed) and the VLR is
integrated with the MSC server. A new SG interface is introduced between the MSC
Server/VLR and MME, allowing combined and coordinated procedures. The concept consists
of:

• Signal relay to end the CS request (incoming calls, handling network triggered
additional service or SMS Legacy) from the MSC Server for MS on SG and vice
versa;

• The combined operating procedures between the PS domain and the CS domain.

Interworking with Non-3GPP Access

Interworking with different system of 3GPP access networks (called non-

3GPP/access) was an important target for SAE; this should be done under the EPC umbrella.
This interoperability can be achieved at different levels (and in fact, this was done on the layer
4 with VCC/SRVCC). But for the generic type of interworking, it seemed necessary to rely on
generic mechanisms, so the IP level seemed most appropriate.

In general, complete systems for mobile and fixed networks have an architecture
similar to that described above. For the evolved 3GPP system there is normally an access
network and a core network. In the interworking architecture scheduled evolved 3GPP
system, other access technologies systems connect to the EPC.

In general, complete mobile network system and fixed network systems have a similar
architecture as described outlined in Evolved 3GPP system and normally consist of an access
network and a core network/ It was also decided to allow two different types of
interoperability, based on the property of the access systems. For networks with non-3GPP
access confidence, it is assumed that secure communication between them and the EPC is
implemented and also robust data protection is sufficiently guaranteed.

UMTS – GPRS Tunneling Protocol

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The generation of GPRS Tunneling Protocol (GTP) was virtually impossible, but is
also not desirable to give it for the new system, but, on the other hand, it is quite
understandable that the improvements are also needed in order to be able to interact with the
world of legacy PS smoothly and support functions needed for the newest system.

GPRS Tunneling Protocol (GTP)

GTP protocol is designed for tunneling and encapsulation of data units and control
messages in GPRS. Since its design in the late 1990s, it was put to deploy on a large scale,
and solid experience has been gathered. GTP for Evolved 3GPP system is available in two
variants, control and user plane. GTP-C manages the control plane signaling, and it is
necessary in addition to the data transfer protocol on the purity of the user, GTP-U; it is called
user plane. Current versions, suitable for EPS are GTPv1 US and GTPv2-C.

The peculiarity of GTP is that it supports the separation of traffic within its primary
GTP tunnel holder, or in other words, the ability to group them together and treat carriers. The
ends of GTP tunnels are identified by TEIDs (Tunnel Endpoint identifiers); they are assigned
to the local level for the uplink and downlink by peer entities and reported transversely
between them. TEIDs are used on different granularity by specific example PDN connection
on S5 and S8 and EU on S3 / S4 / S10 / S11 interfaces.

Control Plane of GPRS Tunneling Protocol

GTPv2-C is used on the EPC signaling interfaces (including SGSNs of at least Rel. 8). For
example:

• S3 (between SGSN and MME),

• S4 (between SGSN and Serving GW),

• S5 and S8 (between Serving GW and PDN GW),

• S10 (between two MMEs), and

• S11 (between MME and Serving GW).

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Corresponding to this, a typical GTPv2-C protocol data unit like shown in the figure
above, the specific part GTP is preceded by IP and UDP headers, it consists of a header
GTPv2-C and part containing information GTPv2-C variable in number, length and format,
depending on the type of the message. As the echo and the notification of a protocol version
is not supported, TEID information is not present. The version is obviously firmly set at 2 in
this version of the protocol.

GTP had a complex legacy extension header mechanism; it is not used in most
GTPv2-C. The message type is defined in the second byte (so the maximum of 256 messages
can be defined for future extensions). Below table provides an overview of messages
currently defined GTPv2-C. The length of the message is coded in bytes 3 and 4 (measured
in bytes and not containing the first four bytes themselves).

TEID is the ID of the tunnel end point, a single value on the opposite/receiving side;
it allows multiplexing and de-multiplexing tunnels at one end in the very frequent cases over
a GTP tunnel must be distinguished.

Message Type Message Additional Explanation

0 Reserved Shall never be used (intentionally excluded

from protocol, to enforce explicit setting)

1/2 Echo Request/ Used to probe if a GTP version supported by the

Response sending node.

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3 Version Not Contains the latest GTP version supported the

Supported Indication sending node.

4/5 Direct Transfer Used for tunneling signaling message on S101

Request/ Response interface for optimized handover, between

HRPD access not and MME

6/7 Notification Request/ Used for tunneling notification on S101

Response between HRPD access node and MME

25/26 SRVCC PS to CS Used to trigger and confirm SRVCC initiation

request between SGSN/MME and MSC server

27/28 SRVCC PS to CS Used to indicated and confirm completion of

complete Notification SRVCC between MSC server and SGSN/ MME

32/33 Create Session Used to establish connectivity between two

Request nodes

34/35 Modify Bearer Used to modify properties of a single or of

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Request multiple bearer, include bearer context

information

36/37 Delete Session Tears down GTP control session

Request

38/39 Change Notification Used for reporting location information

request

66/67 Delete bearer Instruct nodes to delete bearer and confirm back

command/ failure

indication

68/69 Bearer resource Used to allocate or modify resources

command/ failure

indication

73 Stop paging indication Sent from SGW to the MME or SGSN

95/96 Create bearer request/ Instruct nodes to install bearers and confirms

response back

Enhanced GTPv1-U

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Only a small but effective improvement was applied to GTP-U, and for that it was not
considered necessary to strengthen the number of protocol version. Thus, we still expect
GTPv1-U, but at least it‘s most recent Rel. 8.
The protocol stack is essentially the same as for GTPv2-C with only the name of the
layers and the protocols substituted accordingly. The extension header mechanism is kept in
place; it allows inserting two elements if necessary.
UDP source port of the triggering message (two octets);
PDCP PDU number: related to the characteristic transfer without loss; in this case, data
packets need to be numbered in the EPC (two octets).
The improvement is the ability to transmit an "end market" in the user plane. It is used in
the inter-eNodeB handover procedure and gives the indication that the pathway is activated
immediately after the data packet, for example, the feature is not necessary to pre-Rel.8
because GTP-U did not end in the radio access node (i.e. not in the BS or NodeB) only a few
messages exist. GTPv1-U, and they are listed in the table above.
It is clear that, in fact a very limited kind of signaling is possible via GTPv1-U (echo
mechanisms and end labeling). The only message that the transfer of real user data is of type
255, the so-called G-PDU message; the only piece of information it carries, after the header
is the original data packet from a user or external PDN equipment.
Not all instances of GTP-U tunnels are listed in the reference architecture (which aimed
to capture the associations were no longer living between network nodes); temporary tunnels
are possible:

• Between two Serving GWs, applicable for the transfer based on S1, in the case
that the service is moved GW;

• Between two SGSNs, corresponds to the previous case, but in the legacy PS
network;

• Between two RNCs, applicable for the relocation of the RNC in the 3G PS
network (no relation to the EPC, it is mentioned here just for completeness).

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