GENERAL CALCULUS IDEAS

Introduction to Limits

■ In order for a limit to exist, the limit from the left and the limit from the right must exist and
be equal.

In the following statements, 𝒄 is a constant, and 𝒇 and 𝒈 are functions which may or may not have 𝒄
in their domains.

1. The limit of a constant is itself. If k is any constant, then, lim𝑥→𝑐 𝑘=𝑘 .

2. The limit of 𝑥 as 𝑥 approaches to 𝑐 is equal to c. lim𝑥→𝑐 𝑥=𝑐

3. The Constant Multiple Theorem lim𝑥→𝑐 𝑘∙𝑓(𝑥)=𝑘∙lim𝑥→𝑐 𝑓(𝑥)=𝑘∙𝐿

4. The addition Theorem lim𝑥→𝑐 (𝑓(𝑥)±𝑔(𝑥))=lim𝑥→𝑐 𝑓(𝑥)±lim𝑥→𝑐 𝑔(𝑥)=𝐿±𝑀

5. The Multiplication Theorem lim𝑥→𝑐 (𝑓(𝑥)∙𝑔(𝑥))=lim𝑥→𝑐 𝑓(𝑥)∙lim𝑥→𝑐 𝑔(𝑥)=𝐿∙𝑀

6. The Division Theorem lim𝑥→𝑐 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑔(𝑥) =lim𝑥→𝑐 𝑓(𝑥) lim𝑥→𝑐 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝐿 𝑀 ,𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑑
𝑀≠0

7. The Power Theorem lim𝑥→𝑐 (𝑓(𝑥))𝑦=(lim𝑥→𝑐 𝑓(𝑥))𝑦 =𝐿𝑦

8. The Radical/Root Theorem lim𝑥→𝑐 √𝑓(𝑥) 𝑚 =√lim𝑥→𝑐 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑚 =√𝐿𝑚

Theorem:
x c
lim e =e lim ln x=ln c lim sin x=sin c
x →c x →c x →c

lim cos x=cos c lim tan x=tan c

x →c x →c

Trigonometric Limit for Sine

sin x x
lim =1 lim =1
x →0 x x → 0 sin x

1−cos x
Trigonometric Limit for Cosine: lim =0
x →0 x
x
e −1
Exponential Limit: lim =1
x →0 x

Continuity of a Function at a Number

A function y=f(x) is continuous at c if the following are true:

a. f(c) exists.

b. lim f (x )∃.
x →c

c. lim f (x )=f(c).
x →c

SIR LEO / KNCHS-SHS / MASTER TEACHER II

Continuity of a Function on an Interval

A function f is continuous on a closed interval [a, b] if

a. f is continuous on the open interval (a, b)

b. lim ¿= f ( a ) and lim ¿= f ( b )

+¿ −¿
x→ a f ( x ) ¿ x→ b f (x)¿

Types of Discontinuity:

1. Missing point discontinuities (hole/removable)

2. Finite jumps (jump/essential)

3. Infinite discontinuities (asymptotic/infinite)

Intermediate Value Theorem (IVT)

Conditions:

1. f is continuous on [a, b],

2. f(a)≠ f(b), and

3. k is any number between f(a) and f(b).

Extreme Value Theorem (EVT)

A minimum value of f occurs at some x=c if f(c)≤f(x) for all x≠ c in the interval.

A maximum value of f occurs at some x=c if f(c)≥f(x) for all x≠ c in the interval.

The slope mt of the line tangent to a given f at the point ( x 0 , y 0 ):

f ( x )−f (x 0)
mt =lim
x→x x−x 0 0

AVERAGE RATE OF CHANGE

(when x changes from x 1 to x 2):
f ( x 2 ) −f (x 1 )
Rave =
x 2−x 1
The Derivative of Natural Exponential Function
x ' x
g ( x )=e g ( x ) =e
The Derivative of General Exponential Function
x ' x
g ( x )=a g ( x ) =a lna
The Constant Rule
f ( x )=c '
f ( x )=0
The Power Rule

SIR LEO / KNCHS-SHS / MASTER TEACHER II

 f ( x )=x n f ' ( x )=n x n−1
The Constant Multiple Rule
'
g ( x )=c ∙ f (x) g ( x ) =c ∙ f ' (x)
The Sum and Difference Rules
h ( x )=[f ( x ) ± g ( x ) ] h ' ( x )=f ' ( x ) ± g ' (x)
The Product Rule
'
h ( x )=u∗v h '( x)=u v + vu '
The Quotient Rule
'
u ' ( x ) v u −uv '
( )
h x= h =
v [ v ]2
Derivative of Trigonometric Functions
2
D x ( sin x )=cos x D x ( cot x )=−c sc x
Dx¿ D x ( sec x )=sec x tan x
2
D x ( tan x )=sec x D x ( csc x )=−csc x cot x
THE CHAIN RULE DERIVATIVES OF LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS
dy
∗du d 1 d 1
'
f ( x )=
du
dx
[ ln x ] =
x dx
[ log a x ]=
xlna
dx
ds
Speed =|v (t )|=| |
Speed is the absolute value of velocity: dt
Acceleration is the derivative of velocity with respect to time. If a body’s velocity at time t is v(t) = ds/dt, then the
dv d2 s
a ( t )= =
body’s acceleration at time t is: dt dt 2
Free-fall Constants (Earth)
ft m
g=32 2
, s=16 t 2 g=9 .8 2
, s=4 . 9 t 2
English units: sec Metric units: sec
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ANTIDERIVATIVES AND INDEFINITE INTEGRATION
CONSTANT MULTIPLE RULE

∫ af ( x ) dx=a ∫ f ( x ) dx , where a is a constant

Equation 1 Equation 2

d
dx
[ F ( x ) ]=f ( x ) ∫ f ( x ) dx=F ( x )+C
DIFFERENTIATION RULES VS. INTEGRATION RULES

DIFFERENTIATION RULES INTEGRATION RULES

d
( x )=1 ∫ dx=x+ C
dx
d n x
n+1
( x )=n x n−1 ∫ x n dx= n+1 +C
dx
d
[ ln x ] = 1 dx
∫ x =ln|x|+C
dx x
d x
[ e ]=e x ∫ e x dx=e x + C
dx

SIR LEO / KNCHS-SHS / MASTER TEACHER II

 d x x

dx
( a )=a x lna ∫ ax dx= lna a +C
d
[ sin x ] =cos x ∫ cos x dx=sin x +C
dx

d
[ cos x ] =−sin x ∫ sin x dx=−cos x+C
dx

d
[ tan x ] =sec 2 x ∫ sec2 xdx =tan x +C
dx

d
[ cot x ] =−csc 2 x ∫ csc2 xdx=−c ot x+C
dx

d
[ s ec x ] =sec x tan x ∫ sec x tan x dx=sec x +C
dx

d
[ csc x ] =−csc x cot x ∫ csc x cot x dx =−csc x+C
dx

d
[ arcsin x ] = 1 2 ∫
dx
=arcs∈ x+ C
dx √ 1−x √ 1−x 2
d
[ arc tan x ]= 1 2 dx
∫ 1+ x 2 =arc tan x +C
dx 1+ x

d 1 dx
[ arcs ec x ] = ∫ =arcs ec|x|+C
dx |x|√ x 2−1 x √ x 2−1

SIGMA NOTATION: If n is a positive integer, then

n n 2 2
n (n+1) n (n+1)
∑ i= 2 (Formula 1) ∑i = 4
3
(Formula 3)
i=1 i=1

n n 3 2
n(n+1)(2n+ 1) n(n+1)(6 n + 9 n + n−1)
∑ i 2= 6
(Formula 2) ∑ i4 = 30
(Formula
i=1 i=1

4)

It is trial that proves one thing weak and another strong. A house built on the sand is in fair weather
just as good as if built on a rock. A cobweb is as good as the mightiest cable when there is no strain
upon it.

–HW Beecher

SIR LEO / KNCHS-SHS / MASTER TEACHER II