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CNR Module-1 Notes - Thank you

Data Structures and applications (Visvesvaraya Technological University)

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M odule 1 Conservation of Natural Resources

CONSERVATI ON OF NATURAL RESOURCES (18CV656)

M ODUL E -1
L AND: Land as a resource, types of lands, conservation of land forms, deforestation, effect of
land use changes. Soil health, ecological and economic importance of soil, impact of soil
degradation on agriculture and food security, need for soil conservation, sustainable land use
planning.

A r esour ce can be defined as ‘any natural or artificial substance, energy or organism, which is
used by human being for its welfare.
These resources can be two types:
(a) Natural resources.
(b) A rtificial resources.
(a) Natur al Resour ces: Resources which are obtained from nature are called natur al r esour ces.
Natural resources are soil, air, water, minerals, coal, sunshine (sunlight), animals and plants, etc.
(b) Ar tificial Resour ces: The resources, which have been developed by human beings during the
growth of civilization, are called ar tificial r esour ces. For example, biogas, thermal electricity,
plastics.
These man-made resources are generally derived from some other natural resources.
For example plastics from the natural resource petroleum.
Classification of Natur al Resour ces:
In Natural resources 2 types
a. Exhaustible b. Inexhaustible
(e.g. Petroleum) (e.g. solar energy, wind, rainfall, tidal energy)
In Exhaustible 2 types
a. Renewable b. Non-renewable
(e.g. wind, water, forests) (e.g. coal, petroleum, iron, biological species)
 I nexhaustible Resour ces: The resources which cannot be exhausted by human
consumption are called inexhaustible resources.
OR
Resources which are present in un ited quantity and cannot be completely used up by
human activities.

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These include energy sources like solar radiation, wind power, water power (flowing
streams) and tidal power, and substances like sand, clay, air, water in oceans, etc.
 Exhaustible Resour ces: Resources are those resources which are present in limited
quantity and can be completely used up by human activities. These are called exhaustible
resources.
For example, coal, petrol.
 Renewable Resour ces: The resources which are naturally regenerated after consumption
are known as renewable resources.
They exist in unlimited quantity. Sun, water, wind, biomass, tides, geothermal energy, etc.
are renewable resources. These are infinite sources of energy.
 Non-r enewable Resour ces: The resources, which cannot be replaced after the use, are
known as non-renewable resources.
M ost fossil fuels, such as coal, petroleum and natural gas are considered nonrenewable
resources. Nonrenewable resources take billions of years for their formation, hence, their
cautious and economic use is the only option left for mankind.
Conser vation of Natur al Resour ces:

• Consumption of natural resources is increasing with growing population. With the

increasing industrialisation and urbanisation, we need to conserve natural resources for
thier destruction will also upset the ecological balance.

• Conservation is the proper management of a natural resource to prevent its exploitation,

destruction or degradation.
Need for Conser vation of Natur al Resour ces:
Some of the needs are:

• To maintain ecological balance for supporting life.

• To preserve different kinds of species (biodiversity).

• To make the resources available for present and future generations.

• To ensure survival of human race.

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Differ ence between Renewable and Non-r enewable Sour ces of Ener gy:
Renewable Non-r enewable
The resources that can be renewed or The resources that cannot be renewed once
replaced are called renewable sources of they are consumed are called non-renewable
energy. sources of energy.
These resources do not cause any pollution These resources cause pollution to the
to the environment. environment.
Renewable resources are inexhaustible. Non- Renewable resources are exhaustible.
Naturally available in a large amount. Naturally available in a limited amount.
The total cost of these resources is low. The total cost of these resources is high.

The maintenance cost of the renewable The maintenance cost of the non-renewable
resources is very high. resources is very low.
Renewable resources are not affected by Non- Renewable resources are affected by
human activities. human activities.
It has low carbon emission and hence It has high carbon emission and hence not
environment friendly. environment friendly.
Examples of Renewable resources- A ir, Examples of Renewable resources- M ineral,
water and solar energy. oil, and Coal.

L and as a Resour ce:

 Land is a naturally occurring finite resource. It provides the base for survival of living
beings.
 India is the 7th largest country in the world.
 The Land is the most important factor in the universe, next to the water. It holds everything
that constitutes terrestrial ecosystems.
 Increased demand on land in modern times due to the rise in human population and
resultant activities has resulted in degradation of land quality and quantity, decline in crop
production, and competition for land.
 A man can use the land for various purposes such as mining, agriculture, forestry, building
houses, roads and setting up factories.
 Humans cannot live without water and food, this order includes healthy land and soil, they

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can do all economic activities only on land.

 Land and land resources refer to a delineable area of the earth's terrestrial surface,
encompassing all attributes of the biosphere immediately above or below this surface,
including those of the near-surface climate, the soil and terrain forms, the surface
hydrology, the near-surface sedimentary layers and associated groundwater and geo-
hydrological reserve, the plant and animal populations, the human settlement pattern and
physical results of past and present human activity.
 Landforms such as hills, valleys, plains, river basins and wetlands include different
resource generating areas that the people living in them depend on.
 If land is utilized carefully it can be considered a renewable resource.
 The roots of trees and grasses bind the soil. If forests are depleted, or grasslands
overgrazed, the land becomes unproductive and wasteland is formed. Intensive irrigation
leads to water logging and salination, on which crops cannot grow.
 Land is also converted into a non-renewable resource when highly toxic industrial and
nuclear wastes are dumped on it.
 Land on earth is as finite as any of our other natural resources. While mankind has learnt to
adapt his lifestyle to various ecosystems world over, he cannot live comfortably for
instance on polar ice caps, on under the sea, or in space in the foreseeable future.
 M an needs land for building homes, cultivating food, maintaining pastures for domestic
animals, developing industries to provide goods, and supporting the industry by creating
towns and cities.
 Equally importantly, man needs to protect wilderness area in forests, grasslands, wetlands,
mountains, coasts, etc. to protect our vitally valuable biodiversity.
 Thus a rational use of land needs careful planning. One can develop most of these different
types of land uses almost anywhere, but protected areas (National Park’s and Wildlife
Sanctuaries) can only be situated where some of the natural ecosystems are still
undisturbed. These Protected Areas are important aspects of good land use planning.

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Types of L ands:
The following are the types of Lands:
1. Residential or Urban Land
2. Commercial Land
3. Investment Land
4. Wet Land
5. Range Land
6. A gricultural or Farm Land
7. Forest Land
8. Barren Land
9. Recreational Land
10. Transport Land
11. Grazing and Pastures Land

1. Residential or Ur ban L and:

 Residential land is utilized exclusively for living purposes.

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 Nowadays residential lands are covered by human basic needs and facilities surrounded by
school zones, college zones, campuses, stationery stores, grocery stores, textile shops, some
industries, parks, children’s playgrounds, and many more. A lot of apartments are covered
over the area called residential areas.
 In every part of this modern world, districts and states are very well developed and
developing and villages are developing with technological equipment like agriculture,
transport facilities, electricity connections, communication facilities, factories in the
neighbourhood, shopping malls, Industrial Zone & Commercial Complexes, Companies this
is called Urban Land.
2. Commer cial L and:
 Commercial land is utilized for Public or commercial purposes.
 The Land which is allocated to use for commercial purposes is known as Commercial Land,
when looking for the term commercial the land hosts Shopping malls, Park or groceries,
Complexes, Industries, Restaurants, and Warehouses.
 Since commercial land is a one-time investment, land, and building are more expensive.
 From this, a person gets a higher return on investment, and business building values are
measured by the location and growth of its areas.
 Compared to residential land commercial land is more expensive and more expensive to
maintain.
 It is a global fact that 30% of all areas, districts, and countries of India are occupied by
commercial sectors.
3. I nvestment L and:
 For those who are willing to spend their time and money, investment land will become an
unbeatable asset.
 Investing in an undeveloped area will bring more returns in the future or the next generation.
 Having property in an underdeveloped area motivates an investor in the future to provide
people with basic necessities such as shops, apartments or shopping malls.
 A person can invest in land because the ROI (Return of investment) of land can increase
rapidly and it is a long-term investment.
4. Wet L and:
 Wet lands are covered by water and connected with land, also maintaining the productive

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ecosystem in the world and some of the wetlands are often covered by Fresh or Salty water.
 The wetlands are characterized as Bays, Ponds, Lakes, Rivers and also Oceans.
 The importance of Wetlands are
1. It improves the water quality and water supply
2. It provides wildlife habitat & reduces seaside cyclone damages
3. A lso provides refreshment opportunities to people.
5. Range L and:
 Naturally, Rangeland is an unaltered land that is ideal for grazing of livestock, plants,
Forbes & Shrubs.
 It has been characterized as Forest, Desert, Farmland, Pasture and Industrial or urban.
 It always looks like an isolated condition and discontent.
 Perhaps Grazing animals are infected with toxic and poisonous plants in the rangeland,
which can cause illness or death to the animals.
 Rangeland is not good for the daily lives of humans because it is often plagued by poverty
and food insecurity.
6. Agr icultur al or Far m L and:
 A gricultural land is also referred to as farmland.
 India is very popular for agricultural activities like cultivating rice, oats, wheat, flowers,
fruits, vegetables and livestock .
 Worldwide, 50% of the population is engaged in agriculture. It is used for agriculture and a
house cannot be built on a farm without permission.
 A gricultural Land is categorized as
1. A rable Land
2. Land under Permanent Crops
3. Pastures and Hayfields
 Investing in farmland is the safe option, while compared to other investment opportunities
high returns will get from this investment and it also confers safety to investors’ money.
7. For est L and:
 The forest land is completely covered with trees, which produce timber and wood products,
and with the increase in population, man used the land by clearing the forest to meet his
needs.

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 India is now occupied by 25% of the forest area.

 Forests also maintain the ecological balance in our country.
 The forest plays an important role in controlling soil erosion, flooding, increasing rainfall
and providing favorable climatic conditions in a particular area.
8. Bar r en L and:
 Barren land is a desert land, it is made of soil, the tree has no chance to grow even the plant,
barren land is dry and bare, it is also called wasteland & desolation.
 In a barren land, the plant has no potential for stunted, rare and limited biodiversity in the
ground.
 There is a chance to turn barren land into the forest, but it takes 3 years of patience and
proper techniques. It will take up to 5 years of the time period.
 In India, 6% is barren and uncultivated areas such as mountains, deserts and Ravines are
found.
9. Recr eational L and:
 The recreational land is not used for residential purposes, no one will build a home there, it
is only for recreational purposes only.
 Land utilized for recreational purposes is called recreational land. For Example Beaches,
Swimming pools, Children’s parks or Outdoor parks, Museums, Playgrounds, A musement
parks, Zoos, Camping A reas, Playgrounds for Schools, Gyms are all under the control of
Government A gencies.
10. Tr anspor t L and:
 Land used to transport goods from one place to another is called Transport Land.
 Transportation involves in the way of Walking, Running, Cycling, public Transit, freight
vehicles, skateboarding, private vehicles and manned aircraft.
 It is used to connect different types of cities, towns and villages. Transportation by buses,
trains, motorcycles, scooters and cars plays a very important role in human life.
11. Gr azing and Pastur es L and:
 Grazing land is a field completely covered with grass or grass-like plants or herbs suitable
for livestock.
 Grazing and pasture land are primarily used for livestock fodder plants.
 Grazing lands are especially a feeding ground for livestock or horses.

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Conser vation of L and For ms:

 L andfor m is a natural or artificial feature of the solid surface of the earth or other planetary
body.
OR
 L andfor ms are defined as the natural physical features found on the surface of the earth
created as a result of various forces of nature such as wind, water, ice, and movement of
tectonic plates.
 Landforms include hills, mountains, volcanoes, canyons, and valleys. Features underwater
are also landforms, including ocean ridges and submerged volcanoes.
 Landforms are essential habitat for wildlife and their protection helps to provide resilience
against climate change related impacts and severe weather.
 L and conser vation is the process of protecting natural land and returning developed land to
its natural state.
M ethods of Conser vation of L and For ms:
1. Par ks and Pr eser vations
M any parks and preservations are sites of incredible landforms. There are different ways of
protecting these monuments and landscapes, but two important ones are through UNESCO
World Heritage Site certification, and National Parks.
a. Wor ld Her itage Sites:
 The United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) World
Heritage Sites areas or landmarks that have specific protections under an international
convention.
 In order to be picked as a World Heritage Site, an area must be deemed as having
“outstanding universal value” as well as meeting one out of ten selection criteria.
b. National par ks:
 In the US, the designation of a National Park is an important way of protecting landforms.
National Parks in the US hold a multitude of landforms including dunes, glaciers,
mountains, and canyons.
 The US National Parks System ensures that National Parks receive federal protections
against development and other activities that could harm wildlife.
 These regulations are to protect wildlife, but also to protect landforms that exist in national

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parks.
2. Defor estation Pr evention:
 While it may not seem that removing trees has a significant impact on mountains and other
huge landforms, these kinds of changes can greatly alter the physical geography of a
landscape.
 Deforestation, or the removal of trees in a naturally forested area, involves clear-cutting
areas for the use of agriculture or for things like timber or development.
 A ny time that an area is clear cut and natural vegetation is removed, the land is made
vulnerable to erosion and landslides.
 Landslides can lead to increased risk of more land and rock fall, since it has lost vegetation
and roots which help grip into the ground and provide stability.
3. Ecosystem Pr otection:
 Wildlife and ecosystem health can have an important impact on the geography of
landscapes, impacting landforms and posing problems when elements are jeopardized.
 V egetation on riverbanks prevented erosion, allowing riverbanks to stabilize and changing
the physical geography of the park.
 Under the ESA , wildlife and its critical habitat is protected against certain types of
development and harm, which helps maintain the integrity of the ecosystem and the
important services it provides. Ensuring wildlife is healthy and minimizing interference is a
critical method of protecting the landforms they inhabit and maintaining them for future
enjoyment.
4. Climate Change M itigation:
 The impacts of climate change can affect nearly every type of landform.
 Climate change, accelerated by human impacts, melts glaciers, causes more frequent
wildfires and droughts, and increases the frequency of severe weather patterns.
 M elting glaciers not only results in sea level rise, it also changes river flows, impacting the
plants and wildlife that depend on these features.
 Climate change not only impacts landforms in cold areas, but also increases wind and
weather that can erode landforms in places like deserts and rainforests as well.
 Reducing fossil fuel emissions and lowering greenhouse gases will help slow the rate of
climate change, protecting the landforms of the earth as well as the wildlife and ecosystems

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that inhabit them.

5. Slope Pr otection:
 A mong natural landforms, slopes are consistently on the verge of shifting as they have to
fight erosive forces.
 There are slope protection solutions to help prevent slope erosion and regenerate vegetation
on the slope.
 The goal isn’t only to prevent it from eroding, but also to make slopes more sustainable.
6. Glacier Pr otection:
 The structure of glaciers is consistently changing as they are melting rapidity, not
only affecting human habitats, but directly impacting penguins, mountain goats and
bighorn sheep.
 A nimals in the surrounding areas are struggling to survive as the melting glaciers are
causing sea levels to rise, giving them less land to live on.
 Glaciers are highly important in providing a shield to mountains, protecting them from
erosion.
 A s humans, we need to pay more attention to global warming and think of alternative
methods to produce energy that won’t heat up our environment.
7. Cave Pr otection:
 Littering in caves is a major problem.
 There’s a need for regular clean ups and the level of littering is consistently increasing. The
garbage that decomposes can make the cave smell unpleasant and can cause harm to any
animals/creatures living inside.
 People should still be allowed to explore caves, but at the same time they should protect
them.
8. River bank Pr otection:
 Riverbanks are important for the ecosystem as they support a variety of animals.
 Natural riverbank erosion is part of nature, but humans have expedited the process by
taking that to an unnatural level.
 A great way of protecting riverbanks is by making sure sufficient vegetation is available
around the banks.
 Grasses, ground covers, shrubs and trees protect the soil from eroding.

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9. Wetland Pr otection:
 These areas are where water covers soil.
 Wetlands are important for our ecosystem as they protect and improve the overall water
quality. They also protect fish and other wildlife, store floodwaters and maintain water
surface through dry periods.
 A good way of protecting wetlands is by cordoning off the perimeter.
 It’s also important to educate tourists so they understand the importance of the preservation
of wetlands.
10. For est Pr otection:
 It’s an area that many people would love to visit, but sadly due to the speed at which we are
destroying them, the next generation will likely never get to see them in their true glory.
 In order to prevent damage to our forests and rainforests, we should try to prevent floods
from getting to the mainland.
 We also need to improve the quality of air as all living habitats, including engendered
species, are currently living in those environments.

Types of L and Conser vation:

The following are some of the types of land conservation:
1. Crop Rotation
2. M ulching
3. Buffer Strips
4. Organic Farming
5. Protected Lands
6. Contour Farming
1. Cr op Rotation:
One of the most traditional and effective ways to prevent soil degradation is by having a variety
of different crops that you grow on the same lot of land. The benefits of crop rotation are
massive and essential for maintaining healthy soil.
Here are some advantages of crops rotation:
 Less pollution - healthy soil works as a filter for our freshwater channels, which keeps
them clean and greatly reduces the number of pollutants.

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 Better fertility - by having a variety of crops growing, the soil is receiving nutrients from
a variety of sources. M uch like the different vitamins we get from the different foods that
we eat, the soil is also receiving different nutrients from different crops being grown.
 Better yield - the variety of different nutrients received from the different crops being
grown actually creates an increase in the overall yield.
Crop rotation has been practiced by farmers for centuries and is still to this day one of the most
effective techniques in preventing soil degradation and encouraging successful land
conservation.
2. M ulching:
This farming practice plays a crucial role in maintaining fertile soil. Once the soil is exposed,
farmers will often mix what is called mulch in with the soil. This is generally some sort of
organic material like hay, manure, grass, husks, or sawdust.
M ulching is a relatively newer land conservation practice that is known for benefiting soil in the
following ways:
 M inimizing erosion - when placed on the surface of the exposed soil, the mulch acts as a
protective agent for the soil from wind and water erosion.
 Soil moisture - by having mulch on your soil, the number of weeds present significantly
decreases, which results in less water being drained from your land by the invasive
plants.
 Increased soil fertility - much like the benefit of crop rotation, the mulch added to the soil
is full of nutrients, which increases the health and fertility of the soil.
3. Buffer Str ips:
Farmers will often create long strips of permanent grass or other vegetation to separate their
crops called buffer strips. These buffer strips essentially work as borders that block the runoff of
pesticides, fertilizers, and metals into the surrounding environment.
In addition, buffer strips also benefit the soil and the farmer by:
 Reducing flooding
 Reducing soil degradation
 Saving energy
 Protecting surrounding infrastructure
This farming practice is one of the most essential tactics for preventing the spread of crop

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pollutants and keeping soil fertile.

4. Or ganic Far ming:
The rise and introduction of industrial-scale farming and the use of harmful pesticides that come
with it, toxins have been finding their way into our soil, water, and food.
While the process of organic farming is more laborious, expensive, and time-consuming, this
traditional process is highly welcomed by land conservationists. Organic farming has many
environmental benefits for land conservation such as:
 Protecting biodiversity
 Less use of fossil fuels
 No water pollution
 Benefits nutrient health of the soil
5. Pr otected L ands:
One of the most straight forward types of land conservation is to simply designate lands that are
protected from development.
When we venture throughout the U.S. and much of the world, we can find areas such as these,
that have been classified as ‘protected’ in accordance with land conservation principles.
 National Parks
 Wilderness Reserves
 National M onuments
 Strict Nature Reserves
 Habitat A rea
 Protected Landscape
These protected lands have served as safe havens for ecosystems and have helped ensure the
health of local biodiversity.
6. Contour Far ming:
The soil conservation method proves efficient in slope territories and suggests planting species
along the contour. Rows up and down the slope provoke soil erosion due to water currents while
rows along the contour restrain it. A n impact of terracing is similar it also helps to conserve soil
and reduce its degradation processes.

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Types of L andfor ms:

Following are some of the common types of landforms:
1. M ountains
2. Plateaus
3. V alleys
4. Deserts
5. Dunes
6. Islands
7. Plains
8. Rivers
9. Oceans
10. Loess
11. Glaciers
12. Peninsulas
13. Deltas
1. M ountains
M ountains are landforms higher than the surrounding areas. They are formed due to the
tectonic movements, earthquakes, volcanic eruptions and erosion of the surrounding areas caused
due to wind, water and ice. M ountains are found in the oceans and on land.
2. Plateaus
Plateaus are flat highlands that are separated from the surroundings due to steep slopes.
They are formed by collisions of tectonic plates, magma action that causes the elevation in
earth’s crust.
3. Valleys
V alleys are low-lying areas of land between hills and mountains that are formed due to
the actions of glaciers and rivers over millions of years. Depending on the shape they are
classified as V shaped valleys and U shaped valleys. V -shaped valleys are formed by the flowing
rivers and U-shaped valleys are formed due to glaciers.
4. Deser ts
Due to lack of adequate rainfall, desert is a dry piece of land with little or no vegetation.
They are mostly found mainly in rain shadow areas which are leeward of a mountain range with

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respect to the wind direction. In deserts, the atmospheric air is very dry, and daytime temperature
is high.
5. Dunes
Dunes are mounds or small hills made up of sand that are created due to the action of and
water flow (under water dunes). It may be dome-shaped, crescent-shaped, star-shaped, linear-
shaped, and many more.
6. I slands
A n island is a piece of land which is surrounded by water from all sides and formed
either due to volcanic eruptions or due to hot spots in the lithosphere.
7. Plains
Plains are flat or the low relief areas on the surface of the earth. It might be formed as a
result of the sedimentation of eroded soil from the top of the hills and mountains or might be due
to flowing lava deposited by the agents of wind, water, and ice.
8. River s
Rivers are natural flowing streams of fresh water descending from mountains. They
mostly flow toward a lake, sea, ocean or another river.
9. Oceans
Oceans are the biggest water bodies found on earth and are saline in nature. Oceans cover
over 71% of the earth’s surface and are responsible in controlling the weather and climate of the
earth. Oceans originated due to continental drifts i.e. the movement of the earth’s tectonic plates.
10. L oess
Loess are deposition of silt, with a little amount of sand and clay. They appear yellowish
or brownish in color. Wind action or glacial activities are responsible for formation of loess.
11. Glacier s
Glaciers are slow moving huge bodies of ice formed due to the compression of the snow
layers. They move depending on the pressure and gravity.
12. Peninsulas
Peninsulas are large land areas that extend into water bodies. They remain surrounded by
water on three sides. Peninsulas are formed by lithospheric movements and action of water
currents.

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13. Deltas
Deltas are low-lying, triangle-shaped areas, located at the mouth of rivers. In the course
of creating a delta, the sand, silt, and rock particles are accumulated in a nearly triangular shape.

Defor estation:
• Deforestation is the purposeful clearing of forested land.

• Throughout history and into modern times, forests have been razed to make space for
agriculture and animal grazing, and to obtain wood for fuel, manufacturing, and
construction.

• A large number of poor rural people are still highly dependent on wood to cook their meals
and heat their homes. We have not been able to plant enough trees to support the need for
timber and fuel wood.

• The National Forest Policy of 1988 now gives an added importance to JFM (Joint Forest
M anagement). A nother resolution in 1990 provided a formal structure for community
participation though the formation of V illage Forest Committees. Based on these
experiences, new JFM guidelines were issued in 2000.

• Timber extraction, mining and dams are invariably parts of the needs of a developing
country. If timber is overharvested the ecological functions of the forest are lost.

• Deforestation has greatly altered landscapes around the world.

• China has lost great expanses of its forests over the past 4,000 years and now just over 20
percent of it is forested.

• Today, the greatest amount of deforestation is occurring in tropical rainforests, aided by

extensive road construction into region.

• Deforestation can result in more carbon dioxide being released into the atmosphere. That is
because trees take in carbon dioxide from the air for photosynthesis, and carbon is locked
chemically in their wood.

• When trees are burned, this carbon returns to the atmosphere as carbon dioxide. With fewer
trees around to take in the carbon dioxide, this greenhouse gas accumulates in the
atmosphere and accelerates global warming.

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• Deforestation also threatens the world’s biodiversity.

Factor s r esponsible for defor estation or causes of defor estation:

The following factors are responsible for deforestation −
1. Rapid growth of population in the developing countries.
2. Extension of agriculture and grazing land.
3. Increasing demand for lumber, timber, paper, pulp, fuel-wood, and charcoal and other
forest produce.
4. Industrialization, urbanization, and consumerism in the developed and developing
countries.
5. Demand of raw material for forest-based and agro-based industries.
6. Demand of land for infrastructure such as roads, highways, railways, irrigation,
electricity, telecommunication services, and civic facilities.
7. Construction of multi-purpose dams all over the world.
8. High rate of poverty in the countries; it is said that poverty directly or indirectly lead to
deforestation.
9. Both natural and man-made forest fire.
10. Delayed administrative decision and dilatory implementation of forest laws in developing
countries.
11. Development projects and growing need for food.

M aj or effects of defor estation:

M ajor effects of deforestation are –
1. Gr eenhouse effect: The greenhouse effect is one of the main effects due to the cutting of
countless trees every year. Trees help in maintaining the balance of carbon dioxide and oxygen
in the atmosphere. Deforestation is also causing the release of other greenhouse gases into the
atmosphere, which is a big reason for global warming.
2. Soil Er osion effect: We all know that trees help in binding the soil together to protect it from
erosion. Due to excessive deforestation across the globe soil erosion is occurring at a higher rate.
Due to deforestation, the soil is contacting with the heat of Sun directly and losing the moisture
& nutrients. Soil erosion affects the irrigation system and hydroelectric infrastructure on a large
scale.

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3. I mbalance in the water cycle: The trees also help to control the level of water in the
atmosphere. It helps in regulating the water cycle properly. Due to deforestation, the level of
water in the atmosphere is decreasing quite rapidly, which is another big reason to worry.
4. Acidic oceans: The oceans become acidic when the level of oxygen is less, and the level of
carbon dioxide is more in the water. Causes and effects of deforestation are one of the main
reasons for acidifying the ocean water, which is affecting the Eco-system of oceans adversely.
5. L oss of natur al habitat: One of the most severe effects of deforestation is the loss of animal
and plant species due to loss of habitat. Forests are home for numerous species of animals and
plants, but unfortunately, this habitat is getting lost due to the cutting of trees.

Pr eventive measur es of defor estation:

1. Gover nment Regulations: The best solution to deforestation is to curb the felling of trees by
enforcing a series of rules and laws to govern it. Deforestation in the current scenario may have
reduced; however, it would be too early to assume.
2. Banning Clear -Cutting of For ests: This will curb the total depletion of the forest cover. It is
a practical solution and is very feasible.
3. Refor estation and Affor estation: Land skinned of its tree cover for urban settlements should
be urged to plant trees in the vicinity and replace the cut trees. A lso, the cutting must be replaced
by planting young trees to replace the older ones that were cut.
Trees are being planted under several initiatives every year, but they still don’t match the
numbers of the ones we’ve already lost.
4. Reduce Consumption of Paper : Y our daily consumption of paper includes printing paper,
notebooks, napkins, toilet paper, etc. Try to reduce consumption, reduce waste of paper and also
opt for recycled paper products.
M ake life simple such as printing/writing on both sides of the paper, using less toilet paper,
avoiding paper plates, and napkins and wherever possible, go paperless.
5. Educate Other s: Still, many are entirely unaware of the global warming problem we’re
facing. Educate your friends, family, and community by sharing the deforestation facts, and its
causes and effects.
6. Eat L ess M eat: Livestock rearing has become one of the leading causes of deforestation. Try
to eat less meat. It may be hard for some people to try. However, eating less meat, even just for
one meal a day, will also make an extreme impact on the environment.

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7. Pur chase fr om Sustainable, For est-Fr iendly Companies: Try to purchase from companies
that are committed to reducing deforestation. A sian Pulp and Paper, D isney, L’Oreal, Hershey,
Unilever, Willmar International are deforestation-free.
8. Reduce Consumption of Defor estation Pr one Pr oducts: Palm oil is a common ingredient in
absolutely everything we see around us. M ake it a simple habit to get a quick peek at the
ingredients. Soybeans are another deforestation hotspot.
Try finding ways to reduce consumption or opting for organic, local soy products and, if
possible, avoid it completely.

Effect of L and Use Changes:

 L and use change is a process by which human activities transform the natural landscapes,
referring to how land has been used.
 Land use change is a major environmental issue in the world.
 Improved nutritional status had led to rapid population growth, especially in the developed
countries.
 This phenomenal rise in human numbers has placed great demands on the earth’s natural
resources.
 Land such as forests, grasslands and wetlands have been converted into intensive
agriculture. Land has been taken for industry and the urban sectors.
 Land use changes occur constantly and at many scales, and can have specific and
cumulative effects on air and water quality, watershed function, generation of waste, extent
and quality of wildlife habitat, climate, and human health.
Some of the effect of land use changes:
 Land development creates impervious surfaces through construction of roads, parking lots,
and other structures contribute to nonpoint source water pollution by limiting the capacity
of soils to filter runoff.
 A ffect peak flow and water volume, which heighten erosion potential and affect habitat and
water quality.
 Increase storm water runoff, which can deliver more pollutants to water bodies that
residents may rely on for drinking and recreation. Storm runoff from urban and suburban
areas contains dirt, oils from road surfaces, nutrients from fertilizers, and various toxic

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compounds.
 A ffect ground water aquifer recharge.
 Landslides and land degradation by population, human activities, urbanization, damage to
top soil.
 Soil erosion due to continuous agriculture without sufficient fallow periods.
 Due to suburbanization increased air pollution due to vehicle use results in higher
concentrations of certain air pollutants in developed areas that may exacerbate human
health problems such as asthma.
 Land development can lead to the formation of heat islands, domes of warmer air over
urban and suburban areas that are caused by the loss of trees and shrubs and the absorption
of more heat by pavement, buildings, and other sources. Heat islands can affect local,
regional, and global climate, as well as air quality.
 A gricultural land use may also result in loss of native habitats or increased wind erosion
and dust, exposing humans to particulate matter and various chemicals.
 Certain agricultural land use practices, such as overgrazing, land conversion, fertilization,
and the use of agricultural chemicals, can enhance the growth of invasive plants. These
plants can alter fish and wildlife habitat, contribute to decreases in biodiversity, and create
health risks to livestock and humans.
 Introduction of invasive species on agricultural lands can reduce water quality and water
availability for native fish and wildlife species.
 Spread of vector-borne disease may be influenced by land use and/or other environmental
change.
 Livestock grazing in riparian zones can change landscape conditions by reducing stream
bank vegetation and increasing water temperatures, sedimentation, and nutrient levels.
 A gricultural land uses can affect the quality of water and watersheds.

Soil Health:
 Soil is a complex mixture of mineral particles, humus, mineral salts, water, air, and living
organisms.
 Soil is the uppermost layer of earth’s crust, which supports growth of plants.
 Soil health is a state of a soil meeting its range of ecosystem functions as appropriate to its

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environment.
 Healthy soil gives us clean air and water, beautiful crops and forests, productive grazing
lands, diverse wildlife, and beautiful landscapes.
 A healthy soil provides many functions that support plant growth, including nutrient
cycling, biological control of plant pests, and regulation of water and air supply.
 Healthy soil contains aggregates that help it bind together, preventing erosion and run-off.
It can hold more water, so plants fare better in drought. It contains more bacteria and fungi
that help plants fight diseases and pests. A nd healthy soil also contains more minerals and
nutrients that feed plants.
 Soil health depends on soil biodiversity.

The main pr inciples to manage soil for health ar e:

1. M aximize pr esence of living r oots
Living roots reduce soil erosion and provide food for organisms like earthworms and microbes
that cycle the nutrients you plants need.
 Reduce fallow
 Plant cover crops
 Use diverse crop rotations
2. M inimize distur bance
To minimize disturbance of your soil, you can:
 Limit tillage
 Optimize chemical input
 Rotate livestock
3. M aximize soil cover
To maximize soil cover year round, you can:
 Plant cover crops
 Use organic mulch
 Leave plant residue
4. M aximize biodiver sity
Increasing diversity across your operation can break disease cycles, stimulate plant growth, and
provide habitat for pollinators and organisms living in your soil.
 Plant diverse cover crops

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 Use diverse crop rotations

 Integrate livestock

Ecological and Economic I mpor tance of Soil:

The following ar e the ecological and economic impor tance of soil
 Soil plays a crucial role in the economy of countries.
 Soil is the foundation of basic ecosystem function.
 Soil modify the atmosphere by emitting and absorbing gases and dust.
 Soil absorbs, hold, release, alter and purify most of the water in terrestrial systems.
 Soil serve as engineering media for construction of foundations, roadbeds, dams and
buildings and preserve artifacts of human endeavors.
 It provides food for soil micro-flora and macro-fauna and helps in maintaining the
biological activity within soil.
 It is the storehouse of nutrients for their supply to higher plant.
 Soil acts as a water filter and a growing medium; provides habitat for billions of organi sms,
contributing to biodiversity; and supplies most of the antibiotics used to fight diseases.
 Humans use soil as a holding facility for solid waste, filter for wastewater, and foundation
for our cities and towns.

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 Soil filters surface water from dust, provides essential nutrients to our forests and crops, and
helps regulate the Earth's temperature as well as many of the important greenhouse gases.
Soil stores carbon dioxide (CO2) and other GHGs in soil organic matter.
 Soil organic matter improves soil structure, reduces soil erosion, provide microbial habitats.
 Soil store water for plants.
 Healthy soil help protect the plant from climate change.
 Healthy soil provide farmer with better crop yields and protect plants from stress.

Soil Degr adation:

Soil degr adation is defined as a change in the soil health status resulting in a diminished
capacity of the ecosystem to provide goods and services for its beneficiaries.

Factor s affecting or causes of soil degr adation:

Var ious Causes of Soil Degr adation ar e:
1. Physical Factor s:
There are several physical factors such as rainfall, surface runoff, floods, wind erosion, tillage,
and mass movements result in the loss of fertile top spoil thereby declining soil quality.
A ll these physical factors produce different types of soil erosion (mainly water and wind erosion)
and soil detachment actions.
2. Biological Factor s:
Biological factors refer to the human and plant activities that tend to reduce the quality of the
soil. Some bacteria and fungi overgrowth in an area can highly impact the microbial activity of
the soil through biochemical reactions, which reduces crop yield and the suitability of soil
productivity capacity.
Human activities such as poor farming practices may also deplete soil nutrients thus diminishing
soil fertility.
3. Chemical Factor s:
The reduction of soil nutrients because of alkalinity or acidity or water logging are all
categorized under the chemical components of soil degradation.
4. Defor estation:
Deforestation causes soil degradation on the account of exposing soil minerals by removing trees
and crop cover, which support the availability of humus and litter layers on the surface of the

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soil.
When trees are removed by logging, infiltration rates become elevated and the soil remains bare
and exposed to erosion and the buildup of toxicities.
5. M isuse or excess use of fer tilizer s:
The excessive use and the misuse of pesticides and chemical fertilizers kill organisms that assist
in binding the soil together. M ost agricultural practices involving the use of fertilizers and
pesticides often entail misuse or excessive application, thereby contributing to the killing of
soil’s beneficial bacteria and other micro-organisms that help in soil formation.
6. I ndustr ial and M ining activities:
Soil is mainly polluted by industrial and mining activities. A s mining destroys crop cover and
release a toxic chemicals.
Industrial activities, release toxic effluents and material wastes into the atmosphere, land, rivers,
and groundwater that eventually pollute the soil and as such, it impacts on soil quality.
7. I mpr oper cultivation pr actices:
The tillage on agricultural lands is one of the main factors since it breaks up the soil into finer
particles, which increase erosion rates. Other improper cultivation activities such as farming on
steep slope and mono-cropping, row-cropping.
8. Ur banization:
Urbanization has major implications on the soil degradation process. Foremost of all, it
denudates the soil’s vegetation cover, compacts soil during construction, and alters the drainage
pattern.
M ost of the runoff and sediments from urban areas are extremely polluted with oil, fuel, and
other chemicals.
9. Over gr azing:
The rates of soil erosion and the loss of soil nutrients, as well as the topsoil, are highly
contributed by overgrazing. Overgrazing destroys surface crop cover and breaks down soil
particles, increasing the rates of soil erosion.

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I mpact/Effects of Soil Degr adation on Agr icultur e and Food Secur ity:
The following ar e the impacts on agr icultur e and food secur ity
 Harmful Effects of Soil Erosion
 Loss of soil organic matter and nutrients.
 Loss of soil structure.
 Causes a decline in soil health.
 Loss of soil biodiversity.
 Decline in global food production.
 Changes in salinity, acidity or alkalinity.
 Decrease the growth of nutritious food.
 A ffects water supplies.
 Loss of water holding capacity, sediment and water infiltration.
 Soil pollution.
 Reduced yields of crops.
 Reduced land value and resilience to future events.
 Impact on food security.
 Reduces ability to adapt to climate change.
 A dverse effect on economic prosperity.
 Loss of fertile top soil leading to gradual loss of soil fertility and agricultural
productivity.
 Decrease in the percentage of soil moisture.
 Drying of vegetation and extension of arid lands.
 Lessens the microbial activity of the soil.

Need For Soil Conser vation:

Soil conser vation is a combination of practices used to protect the soil from degradation.
Soil conservation focuses on keeping soils healthy through a combination of practices and
techniques.
However, if soil becomes unhealthy, unstable, or polluted, the life cycle stops. Individuals
committed to soil conservation help ensure that soil is fertile and productive, and protect it from

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erosion and deterioration.

Some of the needs for soil conser vation:
 Soil is vital part of our eco system and is the foundation of plant, animal and human life.
 Soil helps to create an environment free of pollution where we can live safely.
 Soil improves water quality and improve wildlife habitat.
 Soil saves farmers money and citizens money.
 Soil maintain an adequate amount of organic matter and biological life in the soil
 Plants grow on soil and play an important role in regulating the climate of a region. In
absence of plants, the region becomes inhabitable.
 A nimal kingdoms eat plants and grasses.
 M ost of organisms in the soil depend on dead plant and animal matter for their food and
energy.
 Soil also helps to create a cleaner climate, absorbing about a third of the carbon dioxide
that fossil fuels and industrial operations emit.
 Soil provides the nutrients essential for plant growth, animal life, and millions of
microorganisms.
 Humans grow crops on soil and thus live a settled life.
 Soil gives good quality and quantity of crop yields.
 M anage surface runoff.
 Soil reduces the wind velocity near the ground by growing vegetation.
 Protect downstream water courses from sedimentation and pollution.
Var ious methods for soil conser vation:
1. M aintenance of soil fer tility: The fertility can be maintained by adding manure and
fertilizers regularly as well as by rotation of crop.
2. Contr ol on gr azing: Grazing should be allowed only on specified areas.
3. Conser vational tillage: The process of mixing the residues from previous crops into the
soil by ploughing is called conservational tillage. It improves soil permeability and
increase organic matter, which in turn improve soil moisture and nutrients.
4. Or ganic far ming: Process of increasing organic input to the soil. E.g bio fertilizer
5. Cr op r otation: Process of growing different crops in successive year on the same land. It
prevents the loss of fertility of the soil.

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6. Contour ploughing: It is very useful areas with low rain fall, i.e. placing some furrows
to store water, which reduces runoff and erosion.
7. M ulching: Soil is covered with crop residues and other form of plant litters.
8. Str ip cr opping: Planting of crops in rows to check flow of water.
9. Ter r ace far ming: Conversion of steep slopes in to a series of broad terraces which run
across the contour. It reduces soil erosion by controlling run off.
10. Agr o for estr y or Alley cr opping: Planting crops in between rows of trees or shrubs, that
can provide fruits and fuel wood. A fter harvesting the crops the soil will not be eroded
because trees and shrubs will remain on the soil and hold the soil particles.
11. Wind br eak: Trees are planted in long rows along the boundary of cultivated land which
block the wind and reduce soil erosion. Wind breaks help in retaining soil moisture,
supply wood for fuel and provide habitat for birds.

Sustainable L and Use Planning:

 Land itself is a major resource, needed for food production, animal husbandry, industry,
and for our growing human settlements.
 These forms of intensive landuse are frequently extended at the cost of wild lands, our
remaining forests, grasslands, wetlands and deserts.
 Thus it is essential to evolve a rational land-use policy that examines how much land must
be made available for different purposes and where it must be situated.
 The term land use encompasses not only land use for agricultural and forestry purposes, but
also for settlements, industrial sites, roads and other human activities.
 Sustainable land use planning is a process that aims to integrate ecological with socio-
economic, and political with ethical principles in the management of land, for productive
and other functions, to achieve intra and inter generational equity.
 Sustainable land use planning has to find a balance between agricultural development and
conservation of natural resources. Thus, development and environment are two aspects of
the same process.
 Its purpose is to select and put into practice those land uses that will best meet the needs
and aspirations of present and future generations.
 The driving force in planning should be the need for change, the need for improved

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management or the need for a quite different pattern of land use dictated by changing
circumstances.
 In the process all kinds of land use are involved: agriculture, forestry, wildlife
conservation, urban and industrial expansions, tourism and amenities.
 For formulating and implementing policies and strategies for land use planning it is
essential to collect, process and disseminate timely and reliable information and utilize
modern land assessment and evaluation technologies, to create sound scientific knowledge
for proper decision support.
 The establishment of an effective networking system can greatly improve, enhance and
speed up the process of collection, selection and exchange of information avoiding
duplication and overlap.
 A regional strategy can, at best, give a general idea of what needs to be achieved at the
country level.
 Regional strategies must set priorities and identify relevant projects, assess the
environmental impacts of policies, investigate mechanisms to mobilize resources, enhance
and encourage the participation of all concerned parties.
 The promotion and implementation of land use planning projects will not come free of cost.
 In this respect, new perspectives are required to manage the land and its associate
resources. This is not only a question of allocating and controlling the use of the land, but
of combining the knowledge of pressure influencing the resources themselves, with the
relations among users and human and social objectives, the technologies available to
improve and enhance the land use planning process, the maintenance of biodiversity and
natural equilibrium.
 Poor efficiency of land usage, increasing environmental degradation, high costs and an
absence of beneficial results are often seen as the result of a lack of research or the absence
of application of research findings, or restricted access to new and advanced technology.
 Successful research thrust on sustainable land use planning should include the following
actions:
 Data base improvement;
 A daptive research;
 Institutional strengthening;

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 Socio-economic analysis;
 Environmental protection and conservation;
 Technology transfer and infrastructure.
 Finally, to achieve a sustainable land use planning development, objectives and goals,
policies and regulations should be based on local realities, traditions and natural resource
management strategies. The environmental and socio-economic impacts of such policies
and regulations should be assessed before they are implemented.

Soil Er osion
“Soil erosion is the natural process in which the topsoil of a field is carried away by
physical sources such as wind and water.”
Cause of Soil Er osion:
Following are the important causes of soil erosion:
1. Rainfall and Flooding:
Higher intensity of rainstorms is the main cause of soil erosion.
Regions with very heavy and frequent rainfall face a large amount of soil loss. The flowing water
during floods also erodes a lot of soil by creating potholes, rock-cut basins, etc.
2. Agr icultur e:
The farming practices are the major cause of soil erosion. The agricultural activities disturb the
ground. The trees are cleared and the land is ploughed to sow new seeds. M ost of the soil is
eroded during winters.
3. Gr azing:
The grazing animals feed on the grasses and remove the vegetation from the land. Their hooves
churn up the soil. They also pull out plants by their roots. This loosens the soil and makes it more
prone to erosion.
4. L ogging and M ining:
A large number of trees are cut down to carry out the logging process. M ining activities also
disturb the land and leave the soil more prone to erosion.
5. Constr uction:
The construction of roads and buildings exposes the soil to erosion. The forests and grasslands
are cleared for construction purposes, which exposes the soil making it vulnerable to erosion.

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6. River s and Str eams:

The flowing rivers and streams carry away the soil particles leading to a V -shaped erosion
activity.
7. Heavy Winds:
During dry weather or in the semi-arid regions, the minute soil particles are carried away by the
wind to faraway lands.

Effects of Soil Er osion:

The major effects of soil erosion include:
1. L oss of Ar able L and:
Soil erosion removes the top fertile layer of the soil. This layer is rich in the essential nutrients
required by the plants and the soil. The degraded soil does not support crop production and leads
to low crop productivity.
2. Clogging of Water ways:
The agricultural soil contains pesticides, insecticides, fertilizers, and several other chemicals.
This pollutes the water bodies where the soil flows. The sediments accumulate in the water and
raise the water levels resulting in flooding.
3. Air Pollution:
The dust particles merge in the air, resulting in air pollution. The dust plumes from the arid and
Crop rotation has been practiced by farmers for centuries and is still to this day one of the most
effective techniques in preventing soil degradation and encouraging successful land
conservation.
semi-arid regions cause widespread pollution when the winds move.
4. Deser tification:
Soil erosion is a major factor for desertification. It transforms the habitable regions into deserts.
It leads to loss of biodiversity, degradation of the soil, and alteration in the ecosystem.
5. Destr uction of I nfr astr uctur e:
The accumulation of soil sediments in dams and along the banks can reduce their efficiency.
Thus, it affects infrastructural projects such as dams, embankments, and drainage.

Soil Er osion Pr evention:

Following are some of the methods of soil erosion prevention:
1. Plant trees on barren lands to limit erosion of soil.

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2. A dd mulch and rocks to prevent the plants and grass underneath to prevent soil erosion.
3. M ulch matting can be used to reduce erosion on slopes.
4. Put a series of fibre logs to prevent any water or soil from washing away.
5. A wall at the base of the slope can help in preventing the soil from eroding.
6. Every household should have a proper drainage system so that water flows down into
proper water collecting systems.

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