Course: Computer Networks (Hardware

Components) (CS23302)

Unit1:
Introduction
 Contents:

• Network Criteria

• Overall goals of a typical network

• Physical Topologies/Structures

• Network Types: LAN, WAN, MAN

• Switching

• OSI Reference model

• TCP/IP suite

• Comparison of OSI and TCP/IP

• Network devices.
 Network Criteria
1. Performance:
2. Reliability
3. Security

Performance
1. Transit time: The total time a node takes to transmit a message from the beginning until the last character of the
message. Transit stands for Transmission.
2. Response time: The total time a node takes to process an inquiry or a request from another node/ device and
respond. It is the time between the inquiry's end and the response's beginning.
3. Throughput: Throughput measures how much data is transferred successfully from the sender node to the
receiver node in a particular time frame. It is measured in bits per second or data per second.
4. Bandwidth: The maximum possible throughput capacity of the Network. We can measure it in bits, megabits, or
gigabits per second. It defines the highest limit.
5. Delay/ Latency: As we discussed, Throughput is the number of data packets successfully delivered in a given
time. Delay is the measure of time taken to do the delivery.
Important points:
1. A network with high Throughput and less latency is ideal, but Throughput and latency always lie on two sides of
the coin and are always proportional. If we try to automatically increase the data packet transfer, the time taken is
also increased.
2. Throughput and bandwidth might seem similar, but they are different. Bandwidth is conceptual, while Throughput
is practical. Bandwidth is like the vehicle limit of a highway. The number of vehicles/ data packets we are allowing
is the Throughput.
3. Both Bandwidth and Throughput are important for the Network's speed. For fast data transfer, we can transfer more
data packets, but too much data/ vehicles reduce the speed and might cause congestion; there is only one way than
making the bandwidth wider. Hence, bandwidth is important though conceptual.
4. Several other factors influence a network's performance:
1. Number of users
2. Hardware capability
3. Transmission media used.
4. Software efficiency
5. Jitter (disturbance)
5. Latency and Throughput are the two networking metrics that are periodically measured to keep up with the
performance of the Network.
Reliability
It is the degree to which a network is trustworthy, consistent, and dependable. The Reliability of a network is
measured by the frequency of failures it is undergoing and the time it takes to recover from the failures. Overall,
the Robustness of the Network at times of catastrophic events is measured to check how reliable the Network is.

Security
It measures how the Network secures the data amid failures and attacks and the policies and procedures it
implements to protect itself from damages and unauthorized access. In Reliability, the frequency of failures is
checked. In Security, network attacks and data breaches are checked.
Overall goals of a typical network:
1. Resources sharing
2. Feasibility
3. Better performance
4. High Reliability
5. High Security
6. Inter-process communications
7. Flexible access to authorized clients
Physical Topology/Structures
Physical Topology is the term used to describe the way in which a network is maintained.

The geometrical representation of a collection of two or more devices along with their links refers to the network
topology. Basically, there are four different types of topologies. These are – Mesh, Star, Bus, and Ring.

Mesh
This is a kind of network in which every node is connected to every other node.
This can be of two types – full mesh topology and Partially connected mesh topology.

Full mesh topology

In the full mesh topology, every node is connected to every other node. In this, the number of connections in the
network can be calculated by using the formula, n*(n-1)/2. Where, n is the number of computers.

Partially connected mesh topology

In the case of partially connected, at least two of the computers have connections to every other computer in the
network. In this case, if one of the computers in the network fails, the rest of the network still works fine.
Advantages of Mesh Topology –
• Can handle a high amount of traffic
• If one of the computers in the network fails, the whole network does not get affected.
• If a new node/computer is added to the network, it does not disrupts the transmission between other devices.

Disadvantages of Mesh Topology –

• The cost to implement is high
• Maintenance cost is high
Star Topology
In star topology, a central device such as a hub, or switch is present. This is the central device which acts as a server
and the other devices acts as the clients to it. Each of the clients are connected to the server. Depending upon the type
of network card used, the clients are connected to the hub/switch via the coaxial cable of RJ-45 cable.
Advantages of Star Topology –
• Centralized management of the network
• If one computer fails, the other remain unaffected
• Easy to add other devices
• Commonly used in LANs

Disadvantages of Star Topology –

• Higher implementation cost when hub or router is used as a central device.
• The performance of the network depends upon the central device.
If the central device fails, the whole network is disrupted
 Bus Topology
Bus network topology is a type of computer network in which all devices are connected to a common communication line,
also known as the “bus.” In this topology, data is transmitted from one end of the bus to the other and all devices receive the
same signal.

bus network typically consists of a single cable that connects all devices on the network, including computers, printers, and
servers. Each device on the network has a unique address, which allows it to communicate with other devices on the
network.
Advantages of Bus Topology
One advantage of a bus network is its simplicity and low cost, as only one cable is required. However, if the cable fails, the
entire network can be disrupted. Additionally, as all devices on the network receive the same signal, there may be data
collisions and performance issues if multiple devices try to transmit data at the same time.

Disadvantages of Bus Topology

Bus topology, while having its advantages, also comes with some disadvantages. Here are a few of the disadvantages of bus
topology:

Limited Scalability: Bus topology is not easily scalable. As more devices are added to the network, the overall performance
can degrade. This is because all devices on the network share the same communication channel, and as more devices are
connected, the available bandwidth gets divided among them, resulting in slower data transfer rates.
Single Point of Failure: A bus network is highly dependent on the main communication
line, known as the bus. If the bus experiences a failure or gets damaged, the entire
network can be affected. When the main bus fails, all devices connected to it lose
connectivity, disrupting the entire network until the issue is resolved.

Difficult Fault Identification and Troubleshooting: Identifying faults or failures in a bus

topology can be challenging. If a device malfunctions or there is a break in the
communication line, it can be difficult to pinpoint the exact location of the problem. This
can lead to increased troubleshooting time and effort, resulting in longer network
downtime.

Limited Cable Length and Number of Devices: Bus topology has restrictions on the cable
length and the number of devices that can be connected. The length of the bus cable is
limited, and if the network needs to cover a large area, additional repeaters or hubs may
be required to extend the reach. Moreover, there is a limit to the number of devices that
can be connected to the bus before experiencing performance degradation.
Ring Topology
Ring network topology is a type of computer network in which all devices are connected in a closed-
loop configuration. In this topology, data is transmitted from one device to the next in a sequential
manner until it reaches its destination.

A ring network typically consists of a cable or a series of cables that form a closed loop. Each
device on the network is connected to the cable and has a unique address, which allows it to
communicate with other devices on the network.
Advantages of a ring network
One of the advantages of a ring network is its fault tolerance. If one device on the network fails, data can be rerouted
through other devices on the network, allowing the network to continue to function. Additionally, as data flows in only one
direction in a ring network, there are no data collisions that can occur as in a bus network.

Disadvantages of a ring network

However, a disadvantage of a ring network is its limited scalability. The addition of new devices to the network can disrupt
the entire network and require significant reconfiguration. Additionally, if the cable connecting the devices fails, the entire
network can be disrupted, and troubleshooting can be difficult.
Types of Ring Network Topology
There are two types of ring network topology: the single-ring topology and the dual-ring topology.

Single Ring Topology:

In a single-ring topology, all devices are connected to a single ring, and data flows in only one direction.

Dual Ring Topology

In a dual-ring topology, there are two rings, one for data transmission and one for backup. If the primary ring fails, data
can be rerouted through the backup ring to maintain network connectivity.
Hybrid Network Topologies
A hybrid network topology is a combination of two or more different types of network topologies, such as bus, ring, star, or
mesh. By combining these different topologies, hybrid networks can take advantage of the strengths of each individual
topology while minimizing their weaknesses. Hybrid topologies are often used in larger networks where multiple types of
connections are needed to ensure optimal performance and reliability.

Examples of a hybrid network topology

One common example of a hybrid network topology is a star-bus topology. In this topology, multiple star networks are
connected to a central bus network. Each star network is connected to a central hub or switch, while the bus network
connects these hubs or switches to each other. This topology combines the scalability and fault tolerance of a bus network
with the ease of management and reliability of a star network.
Advantages of a hybrid network topology
The main advantage of a hybrid network topology is its flexibility and scalability. By combining different topologies,
hybrid networks can be customized to meet the specific needs of an organization. This can result in a network that is easier
to manage, more reliable, and more efficient than a single topology network. Additionally, hybrid networks can be
expanded easily as needed by adding new topologies or devices, making them ideal for growing organizations.

Disadvantages of a hybrid network topology

However, there are also some disadvantages to using a hybrid network topology. One potential drawback is that hybrid
networks can be more complex and difficult to manage than single-topology networks. This can require more resources
and expertise to maintain, which may be challenging for smaller organizations or those with limited IT resources.
Network Types
LAN(Local Area Network)
o Local Area Network is a group of computers connected to each other in a small area such as building, office.
o LAN is used for connecting two or more personal computers through a communication medium such as
twisted pair, coaxial cable, etc.
o It is less costly as it is built with inexpensive hardware such as hubs, network adapters, and ethernet cables.
o The data is transferred at an extremely faster rate in Local Area Network.
o Local Area Network provides higher security.
MAN(Metropolitan Area Network)
o A metropolitan area network is a network that covers a larger geographic area by interconnecting a different
LAN to form a larger network.
o Government agencies use MAN to connect to the citizens and private industries.
o In MAN, various LANs are connected to each other through a telephone exchange line.
o The most widely used protocols in MAN are RS-232, Frame Relay, ATM, ISDN, OC-3, ADSL, etc.
o It has a higher range than Local Area Network(LAN).
Uses Of Metropolitan Area Network:
o MAN is used in communication between the banks in a city.
o It can be used in an Airline Reservation.
o It can be used in a college within a city.
o It can also be used for communication in the military.

WAN(Wide Area Network)

o A Wide Area Network is a network that extends over a large geographical area such as states or countries.
o A Wide Area Network is quite bigger network than the LAN.
o A Wide Area Network is not limited to a single location, but it spans over a large geographical area through
a telephone line, fibre optic cable or satellite links.
o The internet is one of the biggest WAN in the world.
o A Wide Area Network is widely used in the field of Business, government, and education.
Examples Of Wide Area Network:
o Mobile Broadband: A 4G network is widely used across a region or country.
o Last mile: A telecom company is used to provide the internet services to the customers in hundreds of cities by
connecting their home with fiber.
o Private network: A bank provides a private network that connects the 44 offices. This network is made by using
the telephone leased line provided by the telecom company.
Advantages Of Wide Area Network:
Following are the advantages of the Wide Area Network:
o Geographical area: A Wide Area Network provides a large geographical area. Suppose if the branch of our
office is in a different city then we can connect with them through WAN. The internet provides a leased line
through which we can connect with another branch.
o Centralized data: In case of WAN network, data is centralized. Therefore, we do not need to buy the emails,
files or back up servers.
o Get updated files: Software companies work on the live server. Therefore, the programmers get the updated
files within seconds.
o Exchange messages: In a WAN network, messages are transmitted fast. The web application like Facebook,
Whatsapp, Skype allows you to communicate with friends.
o Sharing of software and resources: In WAN network, we can share the software and other resources like a
hard drive, RAM.
o Global business: We can do the business over the internet globally.
o High bandwidth: If we use the leased lines for our company then this gives the high bandwidth. The high
bandwidth increases the data transfer rate which in turn increases the productivity of our company.
Disadvantages of Wide Area Network:
The following are the disadvantages of the Wide Area Network:
o Security issue: A WAN network has more security issues as compared to LAN and MAN network as all the
technologies are combined together that creates the security problem.
o Needs Firewall & antivirus software: The data is transferred on the internet which can be changed or
hacked by the hackers, so the firewall needs to be used. Some people can inject the virus in our system so
antivirus is needed to protect from such a virus.
o High Setup cost: An installation cost of the WAN network is high as it involves the purchasing of routers,
switches.
o Troubleshooting problems: It covers a large area so fixing the problem is difficult.
 OSI Model

•OSI stands for Open System Interconnection is a reference model that describes how
information from a software application in one computer moves through a physical medium
to the software application in another computer.
•OSI consists of seven layers, and each layer performs a particular network function.
•OSI model was developed by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) in
1984, and it is now considered as an architectural model for the inter-computer
communications.
•OSI model divides the whole task into seven smaller and manageable tasks. Each layer is
assigned a particular task.
•Each layer is self-contained, so that task assigned to each layer can be performed
independently.
•The OSI model is divided into two layers: upper layers and lower layers.

•The upper layer of the OSI model mainly deals with the application related issues, and
they are implemented only in the software. The application layer is closest to the end
user. Both the end user and the application layer interact with the software applications.
An upper layer refers to the layer just above another layer.

•The lower layer of the OSI model deals with the data transport issues. The data link
layer and the physical layer are implemented in hardware and software. The physical
layer is the lowest layer of the OSI model and is closest to the physical medium. The
physical layer is mainly responsible for placing the information on the physical medium.
7. Application Layer
The application layer is used by end-user software such as web browsers and email clients. It provides protocols that allow
software to send and receive information and present meaningful data to users. A few examples of application layer
protocols are the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP), File Transfer Protocol (FTP), Post Office Protocol (POP), Simple
Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP), and Domain Name System (DNS).
6. Presentation Layer
The presentation layer prepares data for the application layer. It defines how two devices should encode, encrypt, and
compress data so it is received correctly on the other end. The presentation layer takes any data transmitted by the
application layer and prepares it for transmission over the session layer.
5. Session Layer
The session layer creates communication channels, called sessions, between devices. It is responsible for opening sessions,
ensuring they remain open and functional while data is being transferred, and closing them when communication ends. The
session layer can also set checkpoints during a data transfer—if the session is interrupted, devices can resume data transfer
from the last checkpoint.
4. Transport Layer
The transport layer takes data transferred in the session layer and breaks it into “segments” on the transmitting end. It is
responsible for reassembling the segments on the receiving end, turning it back into data that can be used by the session
layer. The transport layer carries out flow control, sending data at a rate that matches the connection speed of the receiving
device, and error control, checking if data was received incorrectly and if not, requesting it again.
3. Network Layer
The network layer has two main functions. One is breaking up segments into network packets, and
reassembling the packets on the receiving end. The other is routing packets by discovering the best path
across a physical network. The network layer uses network addresses (typically Internet Protocol
addresses) to route packets to a destination node.
2. Data Link Layer
The data link layer establishes and terminates a connection between two physically-connected nodes on
a network. It breaks up packets into frames and sends them from source to destination. This layer is
composed of two parts—Logical Link Control (LLC), which identifies network protocols, performs
error checking and synchronizes frames, and Media Access Control (MAC) which uses MAC addresses
to connect devices and define permissions to transmit and receive data.
1. Physical Layer
The physical layer is responsible for the physical cable or wireless connection between network nodes. It
defines the connector, the electrical cable or wireless technology connecting the devices, and is
responsible for transmission of the raw data, which is simply a series of 0s and 1s, while taking care of
bit rate control.
TCP/IP model

•The TCP/IP model was developed prior to the OSI model.

•The TCP/IP model is not exactly similar to the OSI model.

•The TCP/IP model consists of five layers: the application layer, transport layer, network layer, data link
layer and physical layer.

•The first four layers provide physical standards, network interface, internetworking, and transport
functions that correspond to the first four layers of the OSI model and these four layers are represented
in TCP/IP model by a single layer called the application layer.

•TCP/IP is a hierarchical protocol made up of interactive modules, and each of them provides specific
functionality.
Here, hierarchical means that each upper-layer protocol is supported by two or more lower-level
protocols.
 OSI TCP/IP
OSI represents Open System Interconnection. TCP/IP model represents the Transmission Control
Protocol / Internet Protocol.
OSI is a generic, protocol independent standard. It is TCP/IP model depends on standard protocols about
acting as an interaction gateway between the network which the computer network has created. It is a
and the final-user. connection protocol that assigns the network of hosts
over the internet.
The OSI model was developed first, and then protocols The protocols were created first and then built the
were created to fit the network architecture’s needs. TCP/IP model.

It provides quality services. It does not provide quality services.

The OSI model represents defines administration, It does not mention the services, interfaces, and
interfaces and conventions. It describes clearly which protocols.
layer provides services.
The protocols of the OSI model are better unseen and The TCP/IP model protocols are not hidden, and we
can be returned with another appropriate protocol cannot fit a new protocol stack in it.
quickly.
It is difficult as distinguished to TCP/IP. It is simpler than OSI.
It provides both connection and connectionless It provides connectionless transmission in the network
oriented transmission in the network layer; however, layer and supports connecting and connectionless-
only connection-oriented transmission in the transport oriented transmission in the transport layer.