RESEARCH METHODS

UNIT 1: INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH METHODS

Research is a logical and systematic search for new and useful information on a particular topic.

Research is a scientific inquiry aimed at learning new facts, testing ideas etc.

Method is a particular procedure for accomplishing or approaching something

Research methods- it is the systematic collection, analysis and interpretation of data to generate
new knowledge and answer a certain question or solve problem.

Systematic-step by step

Scientific-logical steps to follow

Controlled-covers a limited area(scope)

Empirical-evidence based data

From the above statement the following facts can be deduced

 Research is a process of investigation or search
 Research is for something that is not known
 The known fact is usually referred to as a problem
 The purpose of the research is to provide solution to the problem, without the problem
there
will be no meaningful research.

PURPOSE OF RESEARCH. (Objective or goal)

The main purpose of research is to inform action, to prove a theory and contribute to

developing knowledge in a field or study.

Phenomenon- a fact or situation that is observed to exist or happen, especially one whose
cause or explanation is in question

All research proposals are designed to persuade someone- such as a funding body, educational
institution or supervisor- that your project is worthwhile.

Research proposal aims

Relevance- convince the reader that your project is interesting, original and important. Show that
you are familiar with the field.
Context- show that you understand the current state of research on the topic and your ideas have
a strong academic basis

Approach- make a case for your methodology, showing that you carefully thought about the data,
tools and procedures you will need to conduct the research.

Feasibility- confirm that the project is possible within the practical constraints of the program,
institution or funding

IMPORTANCE OF RESEARCH. (Significance or value)

1) Generate Knowledge --- to come up with new knowledge, new facts that have never been in

existence. E.g. the effect social media in critical thinking.

2) Validate Knowledge --- prove or disprove existing knowledge. E.g. the effect of marijuana on
mental status/ Effect of family planning on nutrition status

3) Refine Knowledge --- to improve existing knowledge. E.g. the effect of physical exercise on
the nutrition status of an individual

4) Is a tool for building knowledge and for facilitating learning.

5) Means to understand various issues and increase public awareness.

6) A way to prove lies and to support truths.

7) It is a seed to love reading, writing, analyzing and sharing valuable information.

8) Nourishment and exercise for the mind.

CHALLENGES FACED BY RESEARCHERS.

1. Lack of finances. (funding)

2. Choosing the right topic.

3. Lack of skills.

4. Low demand for research by policy makers.

5. Lack of motivation by researchers.

TYPES OF RESEARCH.

I. Primary research.

II. Secondary research.

I. Primary research.

Primary research is research you conduct yourself (or hire someone to do for you.) It

involves going directly to a source – usually a client and prospective client in your target market

– to ask questions and gather information. Examples of primary research interviews etc.

II. Secondary research.

Secondary research is a research method that involves using already existing data. Existing

data is summarized.

Examples: Published books and articles, academic reviewed journals, Government agencies.

Persons and organizations that carry out research.

i. Academic research for pure academics

ii. Non-governmental organizations for health purposes

iii. Government institutions (e.g. hospitals etc.)

iv. Parastatals(state owned organisation)

CLASSIFICATION OF RESEARCH

1) Research According to Subject

a) Social/Behavior Sciences Research is a study of human society or behavior in such

disciplines as education, law and management. Social or behavior sciences research means that
research involving behavior of human beings as friends sharing resources of this planet. E.g.
Factors affecting education performance of individuals

b) Natural Sciences Research deals with material phenomena and based mainly on observation;

experiments and induction. Thus when we talk of pure or basic or natural sciences research we

are referring to research usually carried out in artificial or laboratory setting in such subjects as

physics, chemistry and biology. E.g. vaccine tests on lab rats and monkeys

2) Research According to Scope

a) Micro Research where the researcher examines in individual (small) units. E.g. staff and

students.
b) Macro Research where the researcher examines in group (large) units. E.g. schools and

districts.

N.B. as student it is better to use Micro Research on account of time, cost and skill limitation.

3) Research According to Purpose

a) Basic/Pure/Academic Research the researcher does not intend to use findings immediately

after the study. It is also called Hypothetical or theoretical Research.

b) Applied/Problem Solving/Action Research the researcher has the attention to use the

finding immediately after the study. A research that is concerned with finding a solution to an

immediate problem is also called Applied Research.

i. Action Research to take an action toward something or somebody.

ii. Evaluation Research to check on performance of a project or program.

4) Research According to Approach

a) Quantitative Research where the researcher is interested in quantities or numbers. It is based

in variables measured using numbers.

b) Qualitative Research the data is basically descriptive in nature and this means that the data to

be obtained are ordinarily obtained in none numerical terms. It is based on ideas used words.

N.B. Both quantitative and qualitative approaches appear in all researches although one may
dominate

UNIT TWO: RESEARCH PROCESS/ PROPOSAL WRITING

A research proposal describes WHAT you will investigate, WHY it is important and HOW you
will do the research. The format of a research proposal varies but most proposals should contain
at least the following elements;

 Cover page
 Introduction/background of the study
 Literature review
 Research design
 Discussion of findings
  Conclusion and recommendation
 Reference list

The five phases of the research process

1) Conceptual phase- research title

2) Design and planning phase- proposal
3) Empirical phase (verifiable by observation or experience rather than by theory)-data
collections
4) Analytical phase (determine relationship using logical reasoning)-data analysis
5) Dissemination phase (spreading information widely)- report writing/final thesis

TITLE PAGE

The title page includes the following;

 The proposed title of your project

 Your name
 Your supervisors name
 The institution and department

[Link] CONCEPTUAL PHASE OR RESEARCH TITLE.

Step One (1): Select an area of interest must be related to area of specialization.

Step Two (2): Identify a specific problem within the area of interest.

Step Three (3): Identify the possible causes to the problem.

Step Four (4): Link the cause to the problem.

Step Five (5): Refine the statement, remove biases, negatives and waste words.

Step Six (6): Modify the statement further, add:

 Context --- Area of study.

 Unit of Analysis --- Respondents/Units to be studied

Step Seven (7): Evaluate the title. It should reflect 3 major characteristics:

 Variables --- Independent Variable (IV) --- Cause.

 Dependent Variable (DV) --- Problem.
 Context --- Are
 a of study or environment.
 Unit of Analysis --- Respondents/Units to be studied.
Step Eight (8): Define the Variables.

 Standard Definition --- From text books/ internet.

 Operational Definition --- From your own understanding.

N/B When identifying/searching for a research problem the following sources can be utilized

a) Interest
b) Lecturers
c) Past experience
d) Mass media
e) Scholarly literature
f) Consultation and practical issues

Evaluating the research problem: after finding a suitable topic of your interest then we have to
also evaluate the problem via the following

a) Newness
b) Interest (the feeling of wanting to know or learn about something or someone)
c) Significance (the quality of being worthy of attention; importance)
d) Feasibility (state or degree of being easily or conveniently done)
e) Facility availability

Criteria for selecting research topic

1. Relevance; the topic you choose should be a priority problem

Questions to be asked include;
How large or widespread is the problem?
Who is affected?
How severe is the problem?
2. Avoidance of duplication; investigate whether the topic has been researched
If the topic has been researched, the results should be reviewed to explore whether major
questions that deserve further investigation remain unanswered. If not, another topic
should be chosen
3. Feasibility; consider the complexity of the problem and the resources you will require to
carry out the study.
4. Applicability of possible results and recommendations
Is it likely that the recommendations of the study will be considered/applied? This will
depend not only on the blessing of the authorities but also on the availability of resources
for implementing the recommendations
5. Ethical acceptability
Consider the possibility that you may inflict harm on others while carrying out the
research. Therefore, it will be useful to review the proposed study.
2. THE DESIGN AND PLANNING PHASE/PROPOSAL STAGE

Proposal-a plan or suggestion, especially a formal or written one, put forward for consideration
by others.

Contents of the proposal

 Preliminary pages
 Chapters
 References
 Appendices

Preliminary pages

 Title page- this shows the topic of the proposal, authors name, the department to which
the research is being submitted and the purpose for submission e.g. A research proposal
submitted to the department of health science in partial fulfillment for the award of a
diploma in community health.
Research proposal topic; FACTORS AFFECTING THE ADHERENCE TO ARVS
AMONG HIV POSITIVE YOUTHS OF NYALENDA, KISUMU COUNTY, KENYA.
 Certification- this is a confirmation that the work submitted belongs to the author and
that the author is responsible for any short comings thereof regarding the information
provided in the research.
 Dedication-this page indicates the names of the people whom the work is committed to.
This is done with or without stating the reason for the authors choice
 Acknowledgement-is written to appreciate those who supported the author in writing the
report or the text. Such support may be in terms of financial, technical, moral and/or
psychological.
 Abstract-is the summary of the various aspect of the study, the following issues are to be
addressed briefly i.e.
a) The background of the study and the specific objectives to be discussed
b) Types of data used and collection techniques adopted
c) Statistical tools employed in the data analysis
d) Major findings and recommendations
 Table of contents- this is important in that it provides readers of the document with an
overview of all major parts, section and subsections of the report and the pages where
they can be found. It also outlines the topic of the document.
 List of tables/figures- this indicated where tables or figures have been used in the
document.
Chapters
Chapter one
a) Background of the study
1) Brief history of your independent variable and the dependent variable i.e. globally,
continental, national….
2) Define your variables- ID and DV
3) Briefly give information about the situation now
b) Problem statement

After you have identified the research problem, the next step is to write a problem
statement. An effective problem statement is brief and concrete. It should:

1) Put the problem in context (what do we really know)

2) Describe the precise issue that the research will address (what do we need to know?)
3) Show the relevance of the problem (why do we need to know it?)
4) Set the objectives of the research (what will you do to find out?)

Example;

Family planning is fundamental in the effort to reduce the Total Fertility Rate and the
consequential maternal mortality and morbidity as well as contributing to improvement in
infant welfare (what we already know). Kenya’s unmet need for family planning stands at
34%. Currently married women with contraceptive prevalence rate stands at 24% for all
women (UNFPA 2012). There is poor contraceptive utilization mainly due to poor male
participation in family planning (what we need to know). Men’s fertility intentions,
reproductive preferences and their attitudes towards family planning influence the
fertility behavior of their wives and their attitude towards use of contraceptives (why we
need to know it). Hence in order to increase the use of modern contraceptives, family
planning programs need to target men specifically at all levels of the program. In order to
promote reproductive health through increased use of modern contraceptives, family
planning programs need to target men specifically at all levels of the program. It is
therefore against this backdrop that the aim of this research is to assess the effect of
awareness on modern family planning methods and help identify underlying factors
responsible for the poor participation in family planning in Seme village, Kisumu County
(what you will do to find out).

Why is it important to state and define the problem well?

Because a clear statement of the problem:

1) Is the foundation for the further development of the research proposal (research
objectives, methodology, work plan, etc.);
2) Makes it easier to find information and reports of similar studies from which your
own study design can benefit;
3) Enables the researcher to systematically point out why the proposed research on the
problem should be undertaken and what you hope to achieve with the study results.
 c) Points to consider when justifying the selected research problem

A health problem selected to be studies has to be justified in terms of it;

1) Being a current and existing problem which needs solution

2) Being a widely spread problem affecting a target population
3) Effects on the health service programs are felt
4) Being a problem which concerns the planners, policy makers and the communities at
large
d) Purpose of the study
1) Identify the strengths (positive attributes) and weakness (negative attributes) in the
causes and the problem
2) Testing hypothesis relevant in the study
3) Validating the theory on which the study is based
4) Identify the gaps (topic or area for which missing or inadequate information limits the
ability of reviewers to reach a conclusion to a given question)
5) Contribute to knowledge generation

Example;

Significance/Purpose of the study.

The study will identify perceived risk and benefits towards family planning and relationships that
affect the attitude and willingness of men towards family planning. These relationships can be
influenced to increase involvement and uptake family planning among men and women in Seme
village, Kisumu county. The study will contribute towards maternal health improvement in Seme
village. The findings will be relevant and useful to the planners of reproductive health services
for appropriate and effective interventions. This study will assist in giving inputs to the policies
and strategies that would be put in place and would be evidence based. Furthermore, the study
will provide more information on efficient and effective utilization of the scarce resources
available for health to address the use inadequacy in the use of family planning methods.

e) Objectives of the study (general/specific)

General objective- aim of the study in general terms. Derived from the topic e.g. “to assess the
factors influencing adherence of ARVs among HIV positive youths in Nyalenda, Kisumu County

Specific objective- measurable statements on the specific questions to be answered. Unlike the
general objective, the specific objectives are more precise and are related to the research
problem. They indicate the variable to be examined and measured. E.g.

To determine the age of HIV positive youths in Nyalenda Kisumu County

To determine the level of awareness among HIV positive youths in Nyalenda, Kisumu county

To determine the health status of HIV positive youths in Nyalenda Kisumu County

Formulation of research objectives

The formulation of objectives will help us to:

1) Focus on the study at hand (narrow down to the essentials of the study)
2) Collect data that is related to the topic/research problem
3) Organize the study in clearly defined parts

How should we state the objectives?

Make sure that the objectives;

1) Cover the different aspects of the problem and its contributing factors in a coherent way
and in a logical sequence
2) Are clearly expressed in measurable terms
3) Are realistic considering local conditions
4) Meet the purpose of the study
5) Use action verbs that are specific enough to measure the variables e.g.
To determine
To compare
To verify
To describe
To establish
f) Research questions

These are derived from the specific objectives of the study. They directly ask the questions that
will be answered in the research’s literature review e.g.

What is the age of women who come for family planning services in Seme area?

What is the education status of women who come for family planning services in Seme area?

What is the marital status of women who come for family planning services in Seme area?

g) Hypothesis

A hypothesis is defined as a speculative statement of a reasonable guess based on available

evidence that the researcher intends to check for e.g. a hypothesis can be stated as: women
coming for family planning methods are more educated

Students who don’t attend classes are likely to perform better in exams
Hypothesis is a tentative answer to a problem. They are not all truth and not all are false.
Descriptive studies however do not need a hypothesis as it describes a situation.

Simply put hypothesis is a proposition or statement of generalization which has no supporting

evidence until a systematic investigation is carried out to establish its validity. It must be noted
that hypothesis is subject to empirical proof, one of the two possibilities is inevitable.; it is either
confirmed or rejected.

In order to measure the relationship among variables, the dependent and independent variables
need to be identified e.g.

The health of children living in urban areas is better than those living in rural areas

An increase in breastfeeding for 6months is followed by a reduction in under 5 mortality and

morbidity rates.

Forms of Hypothesis

1) Null hypothesis (H˳)- is a negative statement which states that there is no significant
difference between the variable being tested and hence any difference observed as
existing occurred merely by chance. If the null hypothesis is unattainable, it must be
rejected and the alternative hypothesis is accepted
2) Alternate hypothesis (Hᴀ)- this is the opposite of the null hypothesis, also known as the
positive hypothesis

h) Significance of the study

1) Who are the beneficiaries of the study?
2) How will they benefit from the study?

i) Scope of the study

Geographic Area- Place

UNIT THREE: LITERATURE REVIEW

Chapter Two

Literature review

A literature review is a comprehensive summary of previous research topic. It provides an

overview of current knowledge, allowing you to identify relevant theories, methods and gaps in
the existing research.

There are FIVE key steps to writing a literature review

 1) Search for relevant literature- before you begin searching for literature, you need a clearly
defined topic. Start by creating a list of keywords related to your research question.
Include each of the key concepts/variables you are interested in and list any synonyms
and related terms. Make sure you read the abstract to find out whether an article is
relevant to your question.
2) Evaluate sources- make sure the resources you use are credible and make sure you read
any landmark studies and major theories in your field or research. As you read, take short
notes that you can later use in your text.
3) Identify themes, debates and gaps- make sure to understand the connections and
relationships between the sources you have read.
4) Outline the structure- find relevant information that adequately describes the conceptual
and theoretical frameworks
5) Write your literature review- the literature review should have an introduction, main body
and conclusion.

A good literature review doesn’t just summarize sources, it analyzes, synthesizes and critically
evaluates to give a clear picture of the state of knowledge on the subject.

Use of literature review

 It prevents you from duplicating work that has been done before
 It increases your knowledge on the problem you want to study and this may assist you in
refining your statement of the problem
 It gives you confidence on why your research project is needed
 To be familiar with different research methods
 To help you understand a research topic
 To establish the importance of a topic
 To help develop your own ideas
 To demonstrate knowledge and show how your current work is situated within, builds on,
or departs from earlier publications

Sources of information

Published information (books, journals)

Unpublished documents (studies in related fields, reports)

Computer based literature searches e.g. Medline

Use key words to begin searching for sources. Some useful databases to search for journals and
articles include:

 Google scholar
 JSTOR (Journal storage)
  EBSCO (Elton B Stephens Company)
 Medline (life sciences and biomedicine)

As you read, you should begin the writing process. Take notes that you can later incorporate into
the text of your literature review

It is important to keep track of your sources with citations to avoid plagiarism. Depending on the
length of your literature review, you might want to divide the body into subsections. You can use
a subheading for each objective to be reviewed, time period or methodological approach

As you write, you can follow the following tips;

 Summarize and synthesize: give an overview of the main points of each source and
combine them into a coherent whole
 Analyze and interpret; don’t just paraphrase other researchers-add your own
interpretations where possible, discussing the significance of findings in relation to the
literature as a whole
 Critically evaluate; mention the strengths and weaknesses of your sources
 Write in well-structured paragraphs; use transition words and topic sentences to draw
connections, comparisons and contrasts.

In conclusion, you should summarize the key findings you have taken from the literature and
emphasize their significance. Be sure to show your research addresses gaps and contributes new
knowledge or discuss how you have drawn on existing theories and methods to build a
framework for your research.

A literature review should be adequate, relevant and critical. While reviewing a literature, give
emphasis to both positive and negative findings and avoid any distortion of information to suit
your own study objectives.

Citation and Referencing

Referencing is a consistent method of acknowledging another person’s idea which you have used
in your own writing. You must reference all sources that you use in your work including work
ideas, facts, images, videos, audio, websites etc.

The purpose of the reference list is to allow your sources to be found by your reader. It also gives
credit to authors you have consulted for their ideas. All references cited in the text must appear in
the reference list, except for personal communications i.e. conversations or emails which cannot
be retrieved.

Bias/Prejudice in research
Bias/prejudice- a strong tendency of the mind or a preconceived opinion about something or
someone. A bias may be favorable or unfavorable. Sometimes unreasoned judgment. E.g.
Women marry for financial stability

How to reduce prejudice in a project

1) Avoid being emotional

2) Avoid media and the printed word
3) Be conscious

Frameworks

1. Theoretical framework- this is a foundational review of existing theories that serves as

a roadmap for developing the arguments you will use in your own work. It can support a
theory of a research study. It introduces and describes the theory that explains why the
research problem exists. It must demonstrate an understanding of theories and concepts
that are relevant to the topic of your research paper and that relates to the broader areas of
knowledge being considered.
a) An explicit statement of theoretical assumptions permits the reader to evaluate them
critically
b) The theoretical framework connects the researcher to existing knowledge. Guided by a
relevant theory, you are given a basis for your hypothesis and choice of research
methods.
c) Articulating the theoretical assumptions of a research study forces you to address
questions of why and how. It permits you to intellectually transition from simply
describing a phenomenon you have observed to generalizing about various aspects of that
phenomenon.
d) Having a theory helps you identify the limits to those generalizations. A theoretical
framework specifies which key variables influence a phenomenon of interest and
highlights the need to examine how those key variables might differ and under what
circumstances.
2. Conceptual framework –this is a brief description of the whole research in terms of the
dependent and independent variable presented in a diagram.

Independent Variable Dependent Variable

Age
Family Planning
Marital status
Methods
Level of education
The figure above shows that “factors” is the independent variable while “family planning
methods” is the dependent variable. The factors which are believed to affect family planning
methods are; age, level of education and marital status.

Mines and Hubberman (1994) defined a conceptual framework as a visual or written product,
one that explains either graphically or in narrative form, the main things to be studied- the key
factors, concepts or variables- and the presumed relationships among them.

UNIT FOUR: RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY

Chapter three

Methodology

The research methodology consists of:

1. Research Design.
2. The Sample and Sample Size.
3. Sampling Procedures.
4. Data Collection Methods.
5. Validity and Reliability.
6. Data Analysis Plan.
1. Definition of research design
Kerlinger, N.F (1986) defines research design as

“The plan and structure of investigation that is conceived so as to obtain answers to research

questions. The plan is overall scheme or program of the research.

Therefore, a research design is the strategy for a study and the plan by which the strategy is to be

carried out. It specifies the methods and procedures for the collection, measurement, and analysis

of data.

A study design is the process that guides researchers on how to collect, analyze and interpret

observations. It is a logical model that guides the investigator in the various stages of the

research.

Research design could be:

a) Exploratory
b) Descriptive.

c) Analytical

a) Exploratory research design.

An exploratory study is a small-scale study of relatively short duration, which is carried out

when little is known about a situation or a problem. It may include description as well as

comparison.

For example:

A national AIDS Control Programme wishes to establish counseling services for

HIV positive and AIDS patients, but lacks information on specific needs patients

have for support. To explore these needs, a number of in-depth interviews are

held with various categories of patients (males, females, married and single)

and with some counselors working on a Programme that is already under way.

When doing exploratory studies, we describe the needs of various categories of patients and

the possibilities for action. We may want to go further and try to explain the differences we

observe (e.g., in the needs of male and female AIDS patients) or to identify causes of

problems. Then we will need to compare groups.

Its immediate purpose is to develop hypotheses or questions for further study.

If the problem and its contributing factors are not well defined it is always advisable

to do an exploratory study before embarking on a large-scale descriptive or

comparative study.

b) Descriptive Research studies.

It is a research that is concerned with finding out who, what, where, when, or how much.

Descriptive studies may be defined as studies that describe the patterns of disease

occurrence and other health-related conditions by person place and time.

It is a research method that describes the characteristics of the population or phenomenon that is

being studied. (descriptive research primarily focuses on describing the nature of demographic

segment without focusing on “why” certain thing occurs)

Personal variables include: basic demographic factors, such as age, sex marital status or

occupation, as well as the consumption of various types of food or medication use.

Characteristics of place refer to the geographic distribution of disease, including variation

among countries or within countries, such as between urban and rural areas.

Uses of descriptive studies

1) They can be done fairly quickly and easily

2) Allow planners and administrators to allocate resources
3) Provide the first important clues about possible determinants of a disease (useful for the
formulation of hypotheses)

Types of descriptive studies.

i. Case reports and case series.

Case report- a careful, detailed report by one or more clinicians of the profile of a single patient.
The individual case report can be expanded to a case series, which describes characteristics of a
number of patients with a given disease.

Uses;

 Important link between clinical medicine and epidemiology (the incidence distribution
and possible control of diseases and other factors leading to health)
 One of the first steps in outbreak investigation
 Often useful for hypothesis generating and examining new diseases, but conclusions
about etiology (the cause of a disease or condition) cannot be made.

ii. Ecological studies.

Ecology- study of relationship among living organisms, including humans and their
physical environment

Data from entire populations are used to compare disease frequencies between different groups
during the same period of time or in the same population at different points in time.

Example: Countries with low cigarette consumption have lower lung cancer rates than
those countries with high cigarette consumption.

Ecological studies are usually quick and easy to do and can be done with already

available information. Since ecological studies refer to whole populations rather than to
individuals, it is not possible to link an exposure to occurrence of disease in the same person.

iii. Cross-sectional studies

A cross-sectional (prevalence) study provides information concerning the situation at a given

time. In this type of study, the status of an individual with respect to the presence or absence

of both exposure and disease is assessed at the same point in time.

 usually involve collection of new data.

 In general, measure prevalence (commonness of a disease) rather than incidence
(occurrence rate, frequency of a disease)
 Not good for studying rare diseases or diseases with short duration; also not ideal for
studying rare exposures.

For factors that remain unaltered over time, such as sex, blood group, etc., the cross-sectional

survey can provide evidence of a valid statistical association.

As can be noted from the above explanation, a cross-sectional study can be either analytical

or descriptive, according to its purpose.

c) Analytic studies

Analytic studies may be defined as studies used to test hypotheses concerning the relationship
between a suspected risk factor and an outcome and to measure the magnitude of the association
and its statistical significance. Analytical study attempts to quantify the relationship between two
factors i.e. the effect of an intervention (I) or exposure (E) on an outcome (O) Analytical
observational studies include case control studies.

Analytic study designs can be divided into two broad design strategies

Observational studies

No human intervention involved in assigning study groups; simply observe the

relationship between exposure and disease.

Subject to many potential biases, but by careful design and analysis, many of these

biases can be minimized.

Examples of observational studies: comparative cross-sectional, cohort and case control studies

Intervention studies

In intervention studies, the researcher manipulates a situation and measures the effects of

this manipulation. Usually (but not always) two groups are compared, one group in which the

intervention takes place (e .g. treatment with a certain drug) and another group that remains

‘untouched’ (e.g. treatment with a placebo).

The two categories of intervention studies are:

• Experimental studies and

• Quasi-experimental studies

2. The sample and sample size

Population: It’s a complete set of individuals, cases or objects with some observable

characteristics.

A census is a count of all the elements in a population.

Sample: A sample is a subset of a particular population. The target population is that population

to which a researcher wants to generalize the results of the study. There must be a rationale for

defining and identifying the accessible population from the target population.

Sampling; it’s the process of selecting a sample from a population.

Population- A number of characteristics within a group that statisticians use to draw conclusion

about the subjects in a study

Target population-is the total group of individuals from which the sample might be drawn.

Sample size - Refers to a portion of the population. Key questions to answer:

1) How many will you select?

2) How do you arrive at that number?

Tools to use:

1) Tables for sample sizes ----- Krejcie & Morgan (1970).

2) Use of formula ----- Slovene’s.

Formula is:

n= N

1+N (e2)

Where;

n = Sample Size

N = Population Size

e = Level of significance = e = 0.05 = e2 = (0.05)2 =0.0025

For example, the target population of this study will be all small business owners in the nine

communities of Gombe state. According to the state ministry of commerce and industry,

business register (2013) there are over 11,003 small scale business owners in Gombe state of

these, majority 5,728 are in service based businesses, while over 5,275 are in the non-service

based businesses. The sample size will be:

n= N

1+N (e2)

1 + 11,003 (0.05)2

1 + 11,003 (0.0025)

28.5075

11003/28.5075

=386

Service Sector Non Service Sector

5,728 x 386 = 200 5,275 x 386 = 186

11003 11003

TABLE 1:

Population & Category Population Sample size

sample size number

1 Service sector 5728 200

2 Non-service sector 5275 186

Total 11.003 386

Reasons for sampling

 Cost
 Time: Greater speed of data collection
 Destructive nature of certain tests
 Greater accuracy of results
 Physical impossibility of checking all items in the population.
 Availability of population elements

Characteristics of a good sample

 Accuracy: It’s the degree to which bias is absent from the sample. An unbiased sample is
the one in which the under estimators and the over estimators are balanced among the
members of the sample.
 Precision of estimate: Precision is measured by the standard error of estimate a type of
standard deviation measurement. The smaller error of estimate, the higher is the
preciseness of the sample.

3. Sampling procedures

There are two major ways of selecting samples

Probability sampling method

Nonprobability sampling method

a) Probability sampling method

Samples are selected in such a way that each item or person in the population has a known

likelihood of being included in the sample.

 I. Simple random sampling method

Is also called Rotary Method, every respondent has equal probability or chance of being
selected. E.g. Ratio of sample size to the population size. If I have11,003 target population and I
want sample size of 386, thus, the ratio is 386/11,003 = 0.03 meaning in every 100 respondents
you will take 3 respondents.

Conditions of Using Simple Random Sampling Method

 If you can access all respondents gathered together.

 If you can access a list of all respondents

Advantages

 Easy to implement with automatic dialing and with computerized voice response systems.

Disadvantages

 Requires a listing of population elements

 Takes more time to implement
 Uses larger sample sizes
 Produces larger errors
 Expensive
II. Systematic random sampling

Is where a respondent is selected every after a given equal interval. This interval is called
systematic random number and it is given by the ratio of the population size to the sample size,
thus, the ratio is N/n ----- 11,003/386 = 28 meaning every 100 respondents will be selected 1
respondent.

N.B. Randomly selects the started number or point.

Conditions of Using Systematic Random Sampling Method

 If you can access all respondents gathered together.

 If you can access a list of all respondents.

Advantages

 Simple to design
 Easier to use than the simple random.
 Easy to determine sampling distribution of mean or proportion.
 Less expensive than simple random

Disadvantages
  Periodicity within the population may skew the sample and results.

If the population list has a monotonic trend, a biased estimate will result based on the start point

III. Stratified random sampling

Is where respondents are divided according to characteristics of interest. The characteristics

should be proved through observation or checking. E.g. age, gender, education level, tribe,
religion, etc.

N.B. Having you sample, you can use Simple Random or Systematic Random if you have the list
of all respondents

Advantages

 Researcher controls sample size in strata

 Increased statistical efficiency
 Provides data to represent and analyze subgroups.
 Enables use of different methods in strata.

Disadvantages

 Increased error with results if subgroups are selected at different rates.

 Expensive especially if strata on the population have to be created
IV. Cluster Random Sampling Method

Is where respondents are divided according to geographical distribution then the researcher can
use Simple Random or Systematic Random to select from each cluster or can select a few
clusters from which to select respondents.

Advantages

 Provides an unbiased estimate of population parameters if properly done.

 Economically more efficient than simple random.
 Lowest cost per sample, especially with geographic clusters.
 Easy to do without a population list.

Disadvantages

 More error due to subgroups being homogeneous rather than heterogeneous

b) Non-Probability sampling

Non-probability sampling is defined as a sampling technique in which the researcher selects

samples based on the subjective judgement of the researcher rather than random selection. It
depends heavily on the expertise of the researchers. It is carried out by observation and
researchers use it widely for qualitative research. Not all members have an equal chance of
participating in the study unlike in probability sampling. Each member of the population has a
known chance of being selected. It is most useful for exploratory studies like a pilot survey. It
includes;

 Convenience sampling procedures

 Consecutive sampling procedures
 Quota sampling procedures
 Judgmental/purposive sampling
 Snowball sampling
a) Convenience sampling

It is a non-probability sampling where samples are selected from the population only because
they are conveniently available to the researcher. Researchers choose these samples just because
they are easy to recruit and the researcher did not consider selecting a sample that represents the
entire population. It is a fast, cost effective and provides ease of availability of the sample.

b) Consecutive sampling

It resembles convenience sampling but with a slight variation. The researcher picks a single
person or a group of a sample, conducts research over a period, analyzes the results and then
moves on to another subject or group is needed. Consecutive sampling technique gives the
researcher a chance to work with many topics and fine-tune his/her research by collecting results
that have vital insights.

c) Quota sampling

Hypothetically consider, a researcher wants to study the career goals of male and female
employees in an organization. There are 500 employees in the organization also known as the
population. To understand better about the population, the researcher will need only a sample,
not the entire population. Further, the researcher is interested in particular group within a
population. Here is where quota sampling helps in dividing the population into strata or groups.

d) Judgmental/purposive sampling

Researchers select the samples based purely on the researches knowledge and credibility. In
other words, the researchers choose only those people who they deem fit to participate in the
research study. Judgmental sampling is not a scientific method of sampling and the downside to
this sampling technique is that the preconceived notion of a researcher can influence the results.
Thus, this research technique involves a high amount of ambiguity.

e) Snowball sampling
Snowball sampling helps the researcher find a sample when they are difficult to locate.
Researchers use this technique when the sample size is small and not easily available. This
sampling system works like the referral program. Once the researchers find suitable subjects, he
asks them for assistance to seek similar subjects to form a considerably good size sample.

When to use non-probability sampling

 Used to indicate if a particular trait or characteristics exists in a population

 Researchers widely use non-probability sampling when they aim at conducting
qualitative research, pilot studies or exploratory research.
 Research use it when they have limited time to conduct research or have budget
constraints
 When the researcher needs to observe whether a particular issue needs in depth analysis.
 Used when a researcher does not intend to generate results that will generalize the entire
population.

4. Data collection instruments

Generally, we have two types of data collection i.e. primary & secondary, an instrument is a
tool used to collect data. The following instruments are suitable for Quantitative Research.

i. Questionnaire
ii. Interview Guide
iii. Observation Guide or Checklist
iv. Record Sheet
v. Survey.

QUESTIONNAIRES

Each item in the questionnaire is developed to address a specific objective, research question or

hypothesis of the study. The researcher must also know how information obtained from each

questionnaire item will be analyzed.

Types of questions used in questionnaires

1 Structured or closed-ended questions

They are questions, which are accompanied by a list of possible alternatives from which

respondents select the answer that best describes their situation.

Advantages of Structured or closed-ended questions

  They are easier to analyze since they are in an immediate usable form
 They are easier to administer
 They are economical to use in terms of time and money

Disadvantages of Structured or closed-ended questions

 They are more difficult to construct

 Responses are limited and the respondent is compelled to answer questions according to
the
researcher’s choices.

2 Unstructured or open – ended questions

They refer to questions, which give the respondent complete freedom of response. The amount of

space provided is always an indicator of whether a brief or lengthy answer is desired.

Advantages of Unstructured or open – ended questions

 They permit a greater depth of response

 They are simple to formulate
 The respondent’s responses may give an insight into his feelings, background, hidden
motives, interest and decisions

Disadvantages of Unstructured or open – ended questions

 There is a tendency of the respondents providing information, which does not answer the
stipulated research questions or objectives.
 The responses given may be difficult to categorize and hence difficult to analyze
quantitatively

Rules for constructing questionnaires and questionnaire items

 List the objectives that you want the questionnaire to accomplish before constructing the
questionnaire.
 Determine how information obtained from each questionnaire item will be analyzed.
 Ensure clarity and avoid ambiguity.
 If a concept has several meanings and that concept must be used in a question, the
intended meaning must be defined.
 Construct short questions.
 Items should be stated positively as possible.
 Double-barreled items should be avoided.
 Leading and biased questions should be avoided.
 Very personal and sensitive questions should be avoided.
 Simple words that are easily understandable should be used.
  Questions that assume facts with no evidence should be avoided.
 Avoid psychologically threatening questions.
 Include enough information in each item so that it is meaningful to the respondent.
 Responding to open ended questions is time consuming, which may put some respondent
off.

Pretesting the questionnaire

The questionnaire should be pretested to a selected sample, which is similar to the actual sample,

which the researcher plans to study. This is important because: -

 Questions that are vague will be revealed in the sense that the respondents will interpret
them differently.
 Comments and suggestions made by respondents during pretesting should be seriously
considered and incorporated
 Pretesting will reveal deficiencies in the questionnaire
 It helps to test whether the methods of analysis are appropriate

Ways of administering questionnaires

Questionnaires are mainly administered using three methods:

i. Self-administered questionnaires

Questionnaires are send to the respondents through mail or hand-delivery, and they complete

on their own.

ii. Researcher administered questionnaires

The researcher can decide to use the questionnaire to interview the respondents. This is

mostly done when the subjects may not have the ability to easily interpret the questions

probably because of their educational level.

iii. Use of the internet

The people sampled for the research receive and respond to the questionnaires through their

web sites or e-mail addresses.

The letter of transmittal / Cover letter

The letter of transmittal / Cover letter should accompany every questionnaire.

Contents of a letter of transmittal

  It should explain the purpose of the study.
 It should explain the importance and significance of the study.
 A brief assurance of confidentiality should be included in the letter.
 If the study is affiliated to a certain institution or organization, it is advisable to have an
endorsement from such an institution or organization.
 In a sensitive research, it may be necessary to assure the anonymity of respondents.
 The letter should contain specific deadline dates by which the completed questionnaire is
to be returned

INTERVIEWS

An interview is an oral (face to face) administration of a questionnaire or an interview schedule.

To obtain accurate information through interviews, a researcher needs to obtain the maximum

co-operation from respondents. Interviews are particularly useful for getting the story behind a

participant's experiences. The interviewer can pursue in-depth information around a topic.

Interviews may be useful as follow-up to certain respondents to questionnaires, e.g., to further

investigate their responses. Usually open-ended questions are asked during interviews.

Types of interviews approaches

(a) Informal, conversational interview - no predetermined questions are asked, in order to

remain as open and adaptable as possible to the interviewee's nature and priorities; during the
interview, the interviewer "goes with the flow".

(b) General interview guide approach - the guide approach is intended to ensure that the same
general areas of information are collected from each interviewee; this provides more focus than
the conversational approach, but still allows a degree of freedom and adaptability in getting
information from the interviewee.

(c) Standardized, open-ended interview - here, the same open-ended questions are asked to all
interviewees (an open-ended question is where respondents are free to choose how to answer the
question, i.e., they don't select "yes" or "no" or provide a numeric rating, etc.); this approach
facilitates faster interviews that can be more easily analyzed and compared

Closed, fixed-response interview - where all interviewees are asked the same questions and

asked to choose answers from among the same set of alternatives. This format is useful for

those not practiced in interviewing.

Problems likely to be encountered during personal interviews

In personal interviews, the researcher must deal with bias and cost

Biased results are a result of three types of errors:

(a) Sampling error

It’s the difference between a sample statistic and its corresponding population parameter. The

sampling distribution of the sample means is a probability distribution of possible sample

means of a given sample size.

(b) Non-response error

This occurs when the responses of participants differ in some systematic way from the responses

of non-participants. It occurs when the researcher:

 Cannot locate the person to be studied

 Is unsuccessful in encouraging that person to participate

Solutions to reduce errors of non-response are

 Establishing and implementing callback procedures

 Creating a non-response sample and weighting results from this sample
 Substituting another individual for the missing non-participant

(c) Response error

Occurs when the data reported differ from the actual data. It can occur during the interview or

during preparation of data analysis.

 Participant-initiated error occurs when the participant fails to answer fully and accurately

either by choice or because of inaccurate or incomplete knowledge. Can be solved by using

trained interviewers who are knowledgeable about such problems.

 Interviewer error can be caused by:-

- Failure to secure full participant cooperation

- Failure to consistently execute interview procedures

- Failure to establish appropriate interview environment

- Falsification of individual answers or whole interviews

-Inappropriate influencing behavior

- Failure to record answers accurately and completely

- Physical presence bias.

Advantages of Personal interviews

 Good cooperation from the respondents

 Interviewer can answer questions about survey, probe for answers, use follow-up

questions and gather information by observation.

 Special visual aids and scoring devices can be used.

 Illiterate and functionally illiterate respondents can be reached
 Interviewer can prescreen respondent to ensure he / she fits the population profile.
 Responses can be entered directly into a portable microcomputer to reduce error and cost
when using computer assisted personal interviewing.

Disadvantages of Personal interviews

 High costs
 Need for highly trained interviewers
Longer period needed in the field collecting data
 May be wide geographic dispersion
 Follow-up is labour intensive
 Not all respondents are available or accessible
 Some respondents are unwilling to talk to strangers in their homes
 Some neighborhoods are difficult to visit
 Questions may be altered or respondent coached by interviewers

Telephone interviews

People selected to be part of the sample are interviewed on the telephone by a trained
interviewer.

Advantages of Telephone interviews

 Lower costs than personal interviews

 Expanded geographic coverage without dramatic increase in costs
 Uses fewer, more highly skilled interviewers
 Reduced interview bias
 Fates completion time
 Better access to hard-to-reach respondents through repeated callbacks
 Can use computerized random digit dialing
  Responses can be entered directly into a computer file to reduce error and cost when
using computer assisted telephone interviewing.

Disadvantages of Telephone interviews

 Response rate is lower than for personal interview

 Higher costs if interviewing geographically dispersed sample
 Interview sample must be limited
 Many phone numbers are unlisted or not working, making directory listings unreliable
 Some target groups are not available by phone
 Responses may be less complete
 Illustrations cannot be used.
 Respondents may not be honest with their responses since it is not a face to face situation

An interview schedule

It’s a set of questions that the interviewer asks when interviewing. It makes it possible to obtain

data required to meet specific objectives of the study.

Note taking during interviews

It refers to the method of recording in which the interviewer records the respondent’s responses

during the interview.

Advantages

 It facilitates data analysis since the information is readily accessible and already
classified into appropriate categories.
 If taken well, no information is left out.

Disadvantages of note taking

 It may interfere with the communication between the respondent and the interviewer.
 It might upset the respondent if the answers are personal and sensitive.
 If it is delayed, important details may be forgotten.
 It makes the interview lengthy and boring.

Tape recording

The interviewer’s questions and the respondent’s answers are recorded either using a tape

recorder or a video tape.

Advantages
  It reduces the tendency for the interviewer to make unconscious selection of data in the
course of the recording.
 The tape can be played back and studied more thoroughly.
 A person other than the interviewer can evaluate and categorize responses.
 It speeds up the interview.
 Communication is not interrupted

Disadvantages

 It changes the interview situation since respondents get nervous.

 Respondents may be reluctant to give sensitive information if they know they are being
taped.
 Transcribing the tapes before analysis is time consuming and tedious.

Advantages of interviews

 It provides in-depth data, which is not possible to get using a questionnaire.

 It makes it possible to obtain data required to meet specific objectives of the study.
 Are more flexible than questionnaires because the interviewer can adapt to the situation
and get as much information as possible.
 Very sensitive and personal information can be extracted from the respondent.
 The interviewer can clarify and elaborate the purpose of the research and effectively
convince respondents about the importance of the research.
 They yield higher response rates

Disadvantages of interviews

They are expensive – traveling costs

 It requires a higher level of skill

 Interviewers need to be trained to avoid bias
 Not appropriate for large samples
 Responses may be influenced by the respondent’s reaction to the interviewer.

OBSERVATION

Observation is one of the few options available for studying records, mechanical processes,

small children and complex interactive processes. Data can be gathered as the event occurs.

Observation includes a variety of monitoring situations that cover non-behavioral and

behavioral activities.

The observer-participant relationship

Interrogation presents a clear opportunity for interviewer bias. The problem is less pronounced

with observation but is still real. The relationship between observer and participant may be

viewed from three perspectives:

 Whether the observation is direct or indirect

 Whether the observer’s presence is known or unknown to the participant
 What role the observer plays

Guidelines for the qualification and selection of observers

 Concentration: Ability to function in a setting full of distractions

 Detail-oriented: Ability to remember details of an experience
 Unobtrusive: Ability to blend with the setting and not be distinctive
 Experience level: Ability to extract the most from an observation study

Advantages of observation

Enables one to:

 Secure information about people or activities that cannot be derived from experiment or
surveys
 Reduces obtrusiveness
 Avoid participant filtering and forgetfulness
 Secure environmental context information
 Optimize the naturalness of the research setting

Limitations of observation

 Difficulty of waiting for long periods to capture the relevant phenomena

 The expense of observer costs and equipment
 Reliability of inferences from surface indicators
 The problem of quantification and disproportionately large records

Observation forms, schedules or checklists

The researcher must define the behaviors to be observed and then develop a detailed list of

behaviors. During data collection, the researcher checks off each as it occurs. This permits the

observer to spend time thinking about what is occurring rather than on how to record it and this

enhances the accuracy of the study.

5. Validity and Reliability

Validity refers to the extent to which a given instrument can accurately measure what it is used

to measure. The question here is; is the instrument you are using the valid instrument to

measure what you are measuring?

To ensure validity, there are various methods used: One is used of expert’s judgment. The

researcher gives the instrument to experts in his/her field and they judge whether the instrument

is valid or not.

The researcher can compute the Content Validity from expert’s judgment is called

Content Validity Index (CVI).

CVI = Number of Question Declared Valid

Total Number of Questions

Minimum CVI to declare an instrument to be Valid is 0.70.

Reliability refers to the extent to which an instrument is consistent in measuring what it is used

to measure by consistency, we mean that each time an instrument is used to measure, it will give

the same results.

One way to ensure reliability is through Test Retest Method.

Here, the researcher administers the instrument to a few people and after a period of around two

weeks, you administer it to the same people. Results of the two tests are compared; if they differ
a lot then the instrument is not reliable.

UNIT 5: REPORT WRITING

Chapter 4

Data analysis

Data preparation and description

Once the data begins to flow in, attention turns to data analysis. If the project has been done

correctly, the analysis planning is already done. Summarize the analysis tools you will use in

your study. These depend on your objectives and the nature of your variables.
ANALYSIS produces lists, frequencies, tables (cross tabulations), statistics and Graphs.

Data preparation

This includes editing, coding and data entry. These activities ensure the accuracy of the data and
their conversion from raw form to reduced and classified forms that are more appropriate for
analysis.

Editing

Editing detects errors and omissions, corrects them when possible and certifies that minimum
data quality standards have been achieved. The editor’s purpose is to guarantee that data are:

 Accurate
 Consistent with intent of the question and other information in the survey
 Uniformly entered
 Complete
 Arranged to simplify coding and tabulation.

Data Entry

Data entry converts information gathered by secondary or primary methods to a medium for
viewing and manipulation. Data entry is accomplished by keyboard entry from pre-coded
instruments, optical scanning, real time keyboarding, telephone pad data entry, bar codes, voice
recognition, optical mark recognition (OMR) and data transfers from electronic notebooks and
laptop computers. Database programs, spreadsheets and editors in statistical software programs
e.g. SPSS and SAS offer flexibility for entering, manipulating and transferring data for analysis,
warehousing and mining.

Data description

The objective of descriptive statistical analysis is to develop sufficient knowledge to describe a

body of data. This is accomplished by understanding the data levels for the measurements we
choose, their distributions and characteristics of location, spread and shape. The discovery of
miscoded values, missing data and other problems in the data set is enhanced with descriptive
statistics.

ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS

1) Seek the consent of respondents before you involve them in the study.

2) All authors/academicians hose ideas are used in the study, are to be fully recognized.

Six medical ethics principles

1. Respect for autonomy- the patient has the right to refuse or choose their treatment
 2. Beneficence- a practitioner should act in the best interest of the patient
3. Non maleficence- first do no harm
4. Justice- concerns the distribution of scarce health resources and the decisions of
who gets treatment (fairness and equality)
5. Respect for persons- the clients have the right to be treated with dignity
6. Truthfulness and honesty- the concept of informed consent

The 7-step process of ethical decision making

1. What are the ethical questions?

2. What are the clinically relevant facts?
3. What are the values at stake?
4. List options. What could you do?
5. What should you do? Choose the best option from the ethical point of view
6. Justify your choice. Refer back to the values and give reasons why some values are more
important in this case than others.

LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY

The things which may reduce validity of your findings are include the following:

1) Intervening Variables: Variables beyond the control of the researcher. E.g. environmental and
emotional biases of respondents.

2) Questionnaire Retrieval: Not all questionnaires distributed will be returned

Chapter Five

Summary and conclusion

The summary is a brief statement of the essential findings. Sectional summaries may be used if

there are many specific findings. These may be combined into an overall summary. Conclusions

represent inferences drawn from the findings. Conclusions may be presented in a tabular form

for easy reading and reference. Summary findings may be subordinated under the related

conclusion statement.

Recommendations

There are usually a few ideas about corrective actions. In academic research, the
recommendations are often further study suggestions that broaden or test understanding of the
subject area. In applied research, the recommendations will usually be for managerial action
rather than research action. The writer may offer several alternatives with justifications.
References

The use of secondary data requires a reference or a bibliography. Proper citation, style and
formats are unique to the purpose of the report.

Appendixes

The appendixes are the place for complex tables, statistical tests, supporting documents, copies
of forms and questionnaires, detailed descriptions of the methodology, instructions to field
workers and other evidence important for later support. The reader who wishes to learn about
technical aspects of the study and to look at statistical breakdowns will want a complete
appendix.

Time schedule

It is a listing of the major activities and the corresponding anticipated time period it will take to
accomplish that activity. The time is usually given in months. Activities to be undertaken can
always overlap.

Budget

A budget is a list of items that will be required to carry out the research and their approximate
cost. It should be detailed enough and precise on items needed, prices per unit and total cost.
Details of requirements in each budget will be governed by the type of research.

SUMMARY OF WRITING A RESEARCH PROPOSAL AND REPORT.

REPORT WRITING TECHNIQUES

A quality presentation of research findings can have an inordinate effect on a reader’s or a

listener’s perceptions of a study’s quality. Recognition of this fact should prompt a researcher to

make a special effort to communicate skillfully and clearly. Research reports contain findings,

analysis, interpretations, conclusions and recommendations. Research reports differ depending

on their aims and their readership. Reports should be clearly organized, physically inviting and

easy to read. Writers can achieve these goals if they are careful with mechanical details, writing

style and comprehensibility.

Writing a research proposal and research reports

A proposal is a document, which details an intended activity. The formats for writing proposals
differ from institution to institution or from department to department. Generally, a research
proposal should include the following prefatory items; the title page, declaration, table of
contents, list of figures and tables, list of acronyms and abbreviations and an abstract. It will also
have chapter one: Introduction, Chapter Two: Literature review and Chapter Three:
Methodology. In addition, it will also have the references, time schedule, budget and any
appendices. The final research report will have what is contained in the proposal (apart from the
time schedule and budget) and in addition dedication, acknowledgement, chapter four: Data
analysis and findings and chapter five: Summary, conclusions and recommendations.

Prefatory items

Prefatory items do not have a direct bearing on the research itself. They assist the reader in using

the research report. They can include: -

Title page

The title page should include the title of the report, the date and for whom and by whom it was
prepared. The title should be brief but should include the variables included in the study, the type
of relationship among the variables and the population to which the results may be applied.

Declaration

This is whereby the researcher declares that the work s his/her original work.

Dedication

Some researchers would always wish to dedicate their work to a person or persons they deem
special in their lives.

Acknowledgements

During the research process, the researcher may require help from other individuals or
organizations. It would be necessary if the researcher acknowledged received from these
individuals and organizations.

Table of contents and list of figures and tables

Any report with several sections that total more than six to ten pages should have a table of
contents. If there are many tables, charts or other exhibits, they should also be listed after the
table of contents in a separate list of tables or list of figures.

List of abbreviations and acronyms

All abbreviations and acronyms used in report should be explained. An abbreviation is a short
form of a word while an acronym is a contraction formed by taking the first letter of several
words.
Abstract

A proposal abstract is a summary of what the researcher intends to do. It should be brief, precise
and to the point. It should be one page or half page. An abstract should have the following parts:
Area of study, the topic, the objectives, tools to collect data, how you will analyze your data and
mention the dependent or independent variable

Chapter one

1.0 Introduction

The introduction prepares the reader for the report by describing the parts of the report.

1.1 Background to the problem

In the background, the researcher should broadly introduce the topic under investigation. The

researcher introduces briefly the general area of study, and then narrows down to the specific

problem to be studied. The background enables the reader to have an idea of what is happening

regarding the area under investigation.

1.2 The problem Statement

The researcher states the problem under investigation. The researcher should describe the factors

that make the stated problem a critical issue to warrant the study. Relevant literature can be

referred to. It should be brief and precise.

1.3 The objectives of the study

Research objectives are those specific issues within the scope of the stated purpose that the

researcher wants to focus upon and examine in the study. The objectives should be specific,

measurable, achievable, and reliable and time bound. Objectives guide the researcher in

formulating testable hypotheses.

1.4 Research questions

These are the questions, which the researcher would like to be answered by undertaking the

study. They should be formulated from the objectives of the study that means now the number of

objectives should tally with the research questions.

1.5 Research Hypothesis

A hypothesis is a researcher’s prediction regarding the outcome of the study. It states possible

differences, relationships or causes between two variables or concepts. Hypothesis are derived

from or based on existing theories, previous research, personal observations or experiences. The

test of a hypothesis involves collection and analysis of data that may either support or fail to

support the hypothesis. If the results fail to support a stated hypothesis, it does not mean that the

study has failed but it implies that the existing theories or principles need to be revised or

retested under various situations.

1.6 Scope of the study

This section indicates the boundary of the study or area of study.

1.7 Significance / Justification of the study

The justification helps to answer the following questions. Why is this work important? What are

the implications of doing it? How does it link to other knowledge? How does it stand to inform

policy making? The significance must be strong enough to warrant the use of time, energy and

money in carrying out the research.

1.8 Assumptions and limitations of the study

An assumption is any fact that a researcher takes to be true without actually verifying it. It puts

some boundary around the study and provides the reader with vital information, which influences

the way results of the study are interpreted. A limitation is an aspect of a research that may

influence the results negatively but over which the researcher has no control. A common

limitation in social science studies is the scope of the study, which sometimes may not allow

generalizations. Sample size may also be another limitation.

Chapter Two

1.0 Literature Review

The purpose of the literature review is to situate your research in the context of what is already
known about a topic. It need not be exhaustive, it needs to show how your work will benefit the

whole. It should provide the theoretical basis for your work, show what has been done in the area

by others, and set the stage for your work.

In a literature review you should give the reader enough ties to the literature that they
feelconfident that you have found, read, and assimilated the literature in the field. It should
probably

move from the more general to the more focused studies, but need not be exhaustive, only

relevant.

The literature review should clearly present the holes in the knowledge that need to be plugged

and by so doing, situate your work. It is the place where you establish that your work will fit in

and be significant to the discipline.

Chapter two should also include a frame work (either conceptual or theoretical frame work) it

usually shows the dependent and independent variables that guides the writer to build on when

writing the proposal.

Chapter Three

1.0 Research Methodology

This section should make clear to the reader the way that you intend to approach the research

question and the techniques and logic that you will use to address it.

1.1 Research design

The coverage of the design must be adapted to the purpose. In an experimental study, the

materials, tests, equipment, control conditions and other devices should be described. In

descriptive or ex post facto designs, it may be sufficient to cover the rationale for using one

design instead of competing alternatives. The strengths and weaknesses of the design can be

identified and the instrumentation and materials discussed.

1.2 The target population

The researcher should explicitly define the target population being studied.
1.3 Sampling strategy

Explanations of the sampling methods, uniqueness of the chosen parameters or other points that

need explanation should be covered with brevity.

1.4 Data Collection Tools and Techniques

This part of the report describes the specifics of gathering the data. Its contents depend on the

design. This might include the data that you anticipate collecting and a description of
theinstruments you will use. Detailed copies of the data collection tools e.g. questionnaires,

interview schedule or observation schedule should be attached as an appendix.

1.5 Data Analysis

This section summarizes the methods used to analyze the data. It describes data handling,

preliminary analysis, statistical tests, computer programs and other technical information. The

rationale for the choice of analysis approaches should be clear. A brief commentary on

assumptions and appropriateness of use should be presented.

Chapter Four

1.0 Data analysis and Findings

The objective is to explain the data rather than draw interpretations or conclusions. When

quantitative data can be presented, it should be done as simply as possible with charts, graphics

and tables. The data need not include everything collected. Only material important to the

reader’s understanding of the problem and the findings should be included. Both findings that
support or do not support the hypothesis should be included.

Chapter Five

5.1 Summary and Conclusions

The summary is a brief statement of the essential findings. Sectional summaries may be used if

there are many specific findings. These may be combined into an overall summary. Conclusions

represent inferences drawn from the findings. Conclusions may be presented in a tabular form

for easy reading and reference. Summary findings may be subordinated under the related
conclusion statement.

Recommendations

There are usually a few ideas about corrective actions. In academic research, the

recommendations are often further study suggestions that broaden or test understanding of the

subject area. In applied research, the recommendations will usually be for managerial action

rather than research action. The writer may offer several alternatives with justifications.

References

The use of secondary data requires a reference or a bibliography. Proper citation, style and

formats are unique to the purpose of the report.

Appendixes

The appendixes are the place for complex tables, statistical tests, supporting documents, copies

of forms and questionnaires, detailed descriptions of the methodology, instructions to field

workers and other evidence important for later support. The reader who wishes to learn about

technical aspects of the study and to look at statistical breakdowns will want a complete

appendix.

Time schedule

It is a listing of the major activities and the corresponding anticipated time period it will take to

accomplish that activity. The time is usually given in months. Activities to be undertaken can

always overlap.

Budget

A budget is a list of items that will be required to carry out the research and their approximate

cost. It should be detailed enough and precise on items needed, prices per unit and total cost.

Details of requirements in each budget will be governed by the type of research.

Characteristics of a Good Proposal:

 The need for the proposed activity is clearly established, preferably with data.
 The most important ideas are highlighted and repeated in several places.
 The objectives of the project are given in detail.
 There is a detailed schedule of activities for the project, or at least sample portions of
such a complete project schedule.
 Collaboration with all interested groups in planning of the proposed project is evident in
the proposal.
 The commitment of all involved parties is evident, e.g., letters of commitment in the
appendix and cost sharing stated in both the narrative of the proposal and the budget.
 The budget and the proposal narrative are consistent.
 The uses of money are clearly indicated in the proposal narrative as well as in the budget.
 All of the major matters indicated in the proposal guidelines are clearly addressed in the
proposal.
 The agreement of all project staff and consultants to participate in the project was
acquired and is so indicated in the proposal.
 All governmental procedures have been followed with regard to matters such as civil
rights compliance and protection of human subjects.
 Appropriate detail is provided in all portions of the proposal.
 All of the directions given in the proposal guidelines have been followed carefully.
 Appendices have been used appropriately for detailed and lengthy materials which the
reviewers may not want to read but are useful as evidence of careful planning, previous
experience, etc.
 The length is consistent with the proposal guidelines and/or funding agency
expectations.
 The budget explanations provide an adequate basis for the figures used in building the
budget.
 If appropriate, there is a clear statement of commitment to continue the project after
external funding ends
 The qualifications of project personnel are clearly communicated.
 The writing style is clear and concise. It speaks to the reader, helping the reader
understand the problems and proposal. Summarizing statements and headings are used to
lead the reader.

Guidelines for writing a good research report

 Break large units of text into smaller units with headings to show organization of the
topics
 Relieve difficult text with visual aids when possible
 Emphasize important material and de-emphasize secondary material through sentence
construction and judicious use of italics, underlining, capitalizing and parentheses.
 Use ample space and wide margins to create a positive psychological effect on the
reader.
 Choose words carefully, opting for the known and short rather than the unknown and
long.
 Repeat and summarize critical and difficult ideas so readers can have time to absorb
them.
 Review the writing to ensure the tone is appropriate
 Proof read the final document to correct any errors.
 Use short paragraphs
 Indent parts of text that represent listings, long quotations or examples
 Use headings and subheadings to divide the report and its major sections into
homogeneous topical parts.