Community Organization and Rural Development: A Learning Process Approach

Author(s): David C. Korten

Source: Public Administration Review, Vol. 40, No. 5 (Sep. - Oct., 1980), pp. 480-511
Published by: Blackwell Publishing on behalf of the American Society for Public
Administration
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480 PUBLICADMINISTRATION
REVIEW

Community Organizationand Rural

Development:
A Learning Process Approach
David C. Korten, The Ford Foundation and The Asian Institute of Management

EDITOR'SNOTE
process itself can be viewed as a learning experience for all
participants involved.
Through a grant made available by The Ford Founda- Korten's study focuses on international development as-
tion, PAR is pleased to present to its readers a compre- sistance programs in the Third World, and development
hensively documented, in-depth research study on "Com-
specialists in this area of interest-academicians as well as
munity Organization and Rural Development: A Learning
practitioners-should certainly benefit from the extensive
Process Approach," by David C. Korten. This study com-
documentation incorporated in the footnotes of the study.
bines both extensive and intensive analysis of develop-
Many of Korten's notes are extensively annotated; virtually
ment assistance programs in Asia, and focuses specifically
all are current and timely. As such, they represent a rich re-
on five case studies which provide the basis for the author's
source which enhances the value of this study even further.
strong conviction that Third World development assistance
Development assistance programs are, of course, no
programs must be part of a holistically perceived learning
longer the monopoly of comparative-international public
process as opposed to a bureaucratically mandated blue- administration specialists. Community development assis-
print design. Stated in the abstract, this proposition, in and tance programs have long since become an integral part of
of itself, should cause no surprise. The real value of Kor-
the urban policy process in America. For this reason, Kor-
ten's efforts, however, may be found in his case studies
ten's study should also provide urban policy specialists with
which provide rich insights into just what can be accom-
some fertile thoughts for further pilferage.
plished in the way of social development if the development

* Though many national and internationalagencies claim

The World Bank estimates that nearly 800 million peo- commitmentto participativeapproachesto helpingthe rural
ple, or roughly 40 percent of the population of the develop- poor, little progresshas been made in translatingambitious
ing nations, still live in absolute poverty;1 studies indicate plans into effective action. The recordof earliercommunity
that in many instances the poor have not benefited-in- developmentand cooperativesefforts is largely a history of
failure, resultingmore often in strengtheningthe position of
deed, they may have suffered absolute loss-during early traditionalelites than in integratingpoorer elementsinto the
stages of national development.2 In response there has been [Link] for involve-
growing interest in new approaches to national develop- mentof the ruralpoor arelittlemorethanwishfulthinking,in-
ment intended to bring the poor more rapidly into full par- adequatelyinformedby pastexperienceas to the investmentsin
ticipation in development decisions, implementation, and institutionalinnovationrequiredto giverealityto an important
benefits.3 Many observers have looked to effective commu- idea. The prevailingblueprintapproachto developmentpro-
nity controlled social organizations as important if not es- grammingwith its emphasison detailedpre-planningand time
sential instruments if the rural poor are to give meaningful boundedprojectsis itself cited as an importantimpediment.
expression to their views, mobilize their own resources in Examinationof a numberof Asian programssuggeststhat
the more successfulgrew out of village [Link]-
self-help action, and enforce their demands on the broader
national political and economic systems.4 quentlythey wereable to achievean unusualdegreeof fit be-
tweenbeneficiaryneeds,programoutputs,andthe competence
of the [Link] key was not preplanning,but
an organizationwith a capacityfor embracingerror,learning
DavidC. Kortenis projectspecialistin populationandsocialdevel- with the people, and buildingnew knowledgeand institutional
opmentmanagementfor The FordFoundationbasedin its Manila capacitythroughaction. A model of the learningprocessap-
Field Office. He holds concurrentappointmentsas visitingpro- proachto buildingprogramstrategiesand appropriateorga-
fessor at the Asian Instituteof Management,facultyassociateof nizationalcompetencesuggestsa newprogramshouldprogress
the CornellUniversityRuralDevelopmentCommittee,and visit- throughthreedevelopmentalstagesin whichthe focal concern
ing lecturerat the School of Public Health, HarvardUniversity. is successivelyon learningto be effective, learningto be effi-
His specialconcernis the developmentof managementtechnolo- cient, and learningto [Link] the role of the
gies suitedto the needs of participativeruraland urbandevelop- social scientist and for action by funding agencies are dis-
ment. cussed.

SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER
1980
COMMUNITY
ORGANIZATION
ANDRURALDEVELOPMENT 481

Given this interest we might expect that the difficult [Rluralcooperativesin developing areastodaybringlittlebenefit
problemsof how to involvethe ruralpoor in theirown de- to themassesof poorerinhabitants of thoseareasandcannotbe
velopment, through local organizationsand otherwise, generallyregardedas agentsof changeanddevelopment for such
wouldbe receivingmajorattentionin developmentjournals whomainlytakead-
[Link] is thebetter-offruralinhabitants
and [Link] this is not the case. Such vantageof thecooperative servicesandfacilitiessuchas govern-
mentsupported creditandtechnical channelled
assistance through
widelyread developmentjournalsas WorldDevelopment,
EconomicDevelopmentand CulturalChange,and the In- cooperatives.7
ternationalDevelopmentReviewseldommentionthe sub- Often the servicesoffered by cooperatives,such as pro-
ject. The recent489-pageAsian DevelopmentBankreview ductionloans and marketingservicesare of little use to the
of Asian developmentgives the topic four pages.5The landlesslaboreror the [Link] cooperatives
440-pagepresentationby Worthmanand Cummingsof a with communitywide membershipthe distributionof con-
strategyfor meetingthe world food crisis based on small trol over their activitiestends to parallelthe structureof
family farm productiondevotes two brief paragraphsto control in the [Link] relativelystratified
farmerassociationsand cooperativeswithbarelya mention communitiesits poorermembersseldomhave a voice and
of the impedimentsposedby villagesocialstructuresto the commonly find themselvesineligible for certain services
implementationof their recommendations.'The World such as loans. Moreover,too often the co-op leadersare
Bank's 1975RuralDevelopmentSectorPolicy Papergives corruptand abusiveof their power. Wherethe poor have
five paragraphsto the importanceof local participation organizedtheir own co-ops to challengeestablishedcom-
and brieflyacknowledgessome impediments,but sayslittle munityintereststhey have commonlyfaced retaliatoryac-
about how they mightbe [Link] 76-page"A Stra- tions they were ill-equippedto resist.8Women may be ex-
tegy for a MoreEffectiveBilateralDevelopmentAssistance cluded, except when there is no male head of household,
Program: An A.I.D. Policy Paper," distributedto all even wherewomenare the chief agriculturalproducers.9
USAID missions as an attachmentto its "ProgramGui- One reasonsuggestedfor the failuresis that these coop-
dance for FY 1980," stressesthat the USAID strategy: erativestoo often have been creationsof government,in-
tended to promotegovernmentpolicies and provide gov-
... involves effective popularparticipationby the poor ... in
decisionmakingso thattheirneeds,desires,capacities andindige- ernmentcontrol over markets,ratherthan voluntarycrea-
nous institutionsare recognized,understood, and givenmajor tions of individualsto increase their collective market
weight. power.'"In most Asian countriesthey enjoy so little popu-
lar supportand so little marketpower that if government
pressuresand inducementssuchas accessto specialservices
... projectscurrentlyin voguepresentdiffi- and subsidieswerewithdrawnmost wouldsoon becomein-
cultproblemswhichremainto be solvedand active."
their solutionis inhibitedby programming One study of 14 cooperativesin Asia includedfour that
proceduresbettersuitedto largecapitalde- were [Link] four characteris-
tics in common:(1) they werelocatedin communitieswith
velopmentprojects than to people-centered relativelyunstratifiedand cohesive social structures;(2)
development. their internalstructuresallowed membersto hold leaders
accountableand enforcedmemberdiscipline;(3) a relative-
But meansand impedimentsare hardlymentioned. ly homogeneousmembershipof small and mediumland-
Unfortunatelymorethanthreedecadesof moderndevel- holderssaw the co-op as an instrumentfor capitalforma-
opment experienceprovide substantialevidencethat this tion and the introductionof technicalinnovationsrather
paucity of attention to how development efforts can effec- than simply a means for obtaininggovernmentfacilities;
tivelyelicitthe participationof the ruralpoor cannotbe ex- and (4) they had strongexternallinkageswith relativelyef-
plainedeitherin termsof the problembeing too new to be fectivegovernmentagencieswhichnot only regulatedtheir
recognizedor havinglong since been solved. functioningbut also providedtraining,services,facilities,
and assistancein resolvingconflicts between members.2
Failuresof the Past Such preconditionsare of course demandingand not al-
ways replicable.
In particular,experiencesover the past three decades
with cooperativesand communitydevelopmentmovements CommunityDevelopment
in the ThirdWorldprovidesome soberinglessons. Thoughthe roots of the communitydevelopmentmove-
ment can be tracedback to the 1920s13it was a Ford Foun-
dation fundedpilot projectintroducedin the EtawahDis-
Coperatives trict of Uttar Pradesh, India in October 1948 which initi-
The member controlled cooperativehas long been an ated the chain of eventsthat broughtit into prominencein
idea with almost universalappeal, being widelypromoted the post-colonial era. Using multi-purposevillage level
in much of the developingworld as an integralinstrument workersin the Etawahprojectachievedimpressiveresults
of nationalruraldevelopmentpolicy. But the typicalout- in self-helpapproachesto increasingagriculturalproduc-
come can be summarizedbriefly. tion and [Link] 1952,the In-

SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 1980
482 PUBLICADMINISTRATION
REVIEW

dian government adopted the concept as the basis of a ma- dated activitiesseriouslycut into the time availablefor
jor national rural development effort. However, it failed to actual work with the [Link] workingwith
adopt the painstaking approach to developing a participa- the community,the field workereasilyfell into the pat-
tive administrative structure able to respond to bottom-up tern of actuallydirectinglocal level [Link],
initiatives which had been the key to the Etawah project's thesepatternswerein sharpcontrastto the Etawahpilot
success.14 projectwhichhad stressedthe developmentof organiza-
The attention attracted by India's launching of a national tionalprocessesthat placeda premiumon beingrespon-
community development effort led to the initiation of simi- sive to communityidentifiedneeds.21
lar programs in over 60 nations of Asia, Africa, and Latin
America during the 1950s, labeled by Holdcroft as Com- (5) Littlewas done to buildindependentmembercontrolled
local organizationsable to solve local problems and
munity Development's "Decade of Prominence." But by
1960 some programs were already faltering and by 1965 makedemandson the [Link],the
most had been terminated or drastically reduced. Commu- villageitself tendedto be treatedas a self-containedde-
nity development had promised much, yet delivered little.15 velopmentunit with little attentiongiven to the need to
With changes in national governments came the desire of link self-governingvillagesinto larger,more economic-
new leaders to establish their commitment to new and, pre- ally viableregionalunits.
sumably, more powerful development concepts. Central
economic planning was embraced, with an emphasis on CurrentDonorExperience
programs promoting immediate economic growth." Com-
munity development offices were abolished or integrated The currentconcern for the rural poor and their par-
into other organizations.'7 ticipationin the developmentprocesshas had an important
The decline may have reflected impatience as much as impact on national agency and donor funding priorities,
anything; perhaps it was unrealistic to expect any program but experienceindicatesthat the reallocationof fundsis not
to achieve significant results in the reduction of poverty and enough. The types of projectscurrentlyin vogue present
food shortages in so short a period."8But a number of char- difficultproblemswhichremainto be solvedand theirsolu-
acteristic weaknesses have been identified in the concept tion is inhibitedby programmingproceduresbettersuited
and its implementation." to large capital development projects than to people-
centeredruraldevelopment.
(1) Existing power structures were accepted as a given and In the discussionthat follows the focus is on largedonors
no attempt was made to change them. Village level becausethe informationis accessibleand theirnumbersare
workers aligned themselves with the traditional village comparativelysmall. It is moredifficultto generalizeabout
elites who captured such benefits as the programs of- the diverse national experiences,however. National and
fered. Recognizing this, the poor majority did not re- even sub-nationaldevelopmentprogrammers are in general
spond. The conflicts of interest inherent in stratified vil- workingwith prioritiesand programmingmethodssimilar
lage social structures were not recognized in program to those of the majordonors-in partas a resultof donor
designs. influence-and face correspondingpressures.
(2) Responsibility for implementation of community de- withPovertyFocusedProgramming
Experience
velopment was placed in administratively separate
ministries or agencies which paralleled the established The WorldBankhas respondedto the new emphasison
line agencies of government. Attempts were made at povertyby realigningits loan portfolioto increasethe pro-
local levels to bring these parallel agencies under the portion of loans going to countrieswith an annual per
control of the community development agency in the in- capita income below $280. It has also substantiallyin-
terests of improved coordination, but this resulted in bu- creasedthe percentageof its portfolio devoted to agricul-
reaucratic conflict that was often a key element in the ture and ruraldevelopmentprojects,and since FY73 over
movement's demise. half of these projectshave been chosen and designedspe-
cificallyto benefit the ruralpoor.2 Its ruraldevelopment
(3) Greater emphasis tended to be placed on the expansion
sectorpolicy papercalls explicitlyfor:
of social services than on increasing rural incomes, and
many of the social services offered seemed of doubtful Participationby the ruralpoor in the planningand implementa-
value. This was not so much a function of the commu- tion processesthroughlocal government,project advisorycom-
nity development concept-the Etawah pilot project mittees,cooperativesand other forms of group organi7ation.
had stressed promoting agricultural production-as an
Under the 1973 foreign assistancelegislationpassed by
outcome of bureaucratic territoriality.20
the UnitedStatesCongress,commonlyreferredto as "The
(4) Implementation was done through conventional bureau- New DirectionsMandate,"not only have the prioritiesof
cratic structures in which programs and targets were for- USAID been reoriented,it is largelyrestrictedto assistance
mulated centrally with little regard to the willingness or targeteddirectlyto the poor majority-with participationa
capability of the people to respond; often little real par- major theme. It is publiclycommittedto the concept that
ticipation was involved. Demands that field workers re- the economicbenefitsof its developmentprojectsshouldbe
port on the implementation of dozens of centrally man- "widelyand significantlysharedby the poor"; and that the

1980
SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER
COMMUNITY
ORGANIZATION
AND RURALDEVELOPMENT 483

poor, includingwomen, shouldbe activelyengagedin deci- answerto povertylies not in relief, but in increasingthe
sion making and implementationin ways which increase capacityof the poor to meet their own needs, they are in
"theirtechnicalskillsand/or theircapacityto organizefor varyingstages of creatingmore developmentallyoriented
commonpurposesand for greateraccessto the benefitsof [Link] activitiestend by their natureto be top
development."23 down, carryinga presumptionthat the recipientsare for
Unfortunately,good intentionsseldom suffice and the one reasonor anotherunableto meettheirown needs. The
difficulties have surfaced fairly quickly. A discussionof reorientationrequiredfor themto becomeeffectivein truly
"new-style" rural development projects in the World bottom-updevelopmentis no smallundertaking.
Bank's 1978Annual Reportobservedthat:
... withhindsight,
It is
frequentlysuggested thatwhatis needed
projectdesignandthepaceof implementation
havebeentoo ambitious,resulting in delaysandshortfallsfrom is more private initiativein attackingthe
originalexpectation.... Amongthemoredifficultaspectsis the problems whichgovernmentbureaucracies
establishmentof systemswithinwhichsmallfarmerscan them- cannot
selveshavea sayin howprograms aredesigned andimplemented, manage.... Thereis littleevidenceto
andhowtheirskills,expertknowledge of thelocalfarmingenvi- suggest that, whenundertaken on anything
ronment,andtheircapacityto helpthemselves canbe fullyinte- approaching thescalerequired,privatevolun-
gratedintoan overalleffort. tary efforts areconsistentlymore effective
Awarenessof the need for change in approachat the thanthoseof government.
Bankis growing,24 but the magnitudeof the changesin pro-
ceduresand staff compositioncalled for is great. An un- Viewedin historicalperspectivethe current"new direc-
published1977 reviewof 164 World Rank ruraldevelop- tions" are perhapsless a new thrustin developmentassis-
ment projectappraisalreportsconcludedthat the majority tance than a returnswing of the pendulumas the results
containedonly the most minimaldata on the social, demo- producedby the economicplannersduringtheir periodof
graphic,and economic characteristicsof the project area ascendancecome into questionmuchas did the workof the
and made no attemptto analyzesuch data as it mightbear community developersbefore them. Holdcroft suggests
on project design.25Similarly,it was concludedthat little that too little attention was given to building a coherent
had beendone in Bankassistedprojectsto utilizethe poten- body of knowledgeout of the theoryand empiricalexper-
tial of indigenoussocial organizations.2' ience of the communitydevelopmentera with the result
The Bank's PIDER Projectin Mexicohas receivedspe- that manyof its lessonsremainunlearned.31 The resultis a
cial attentionbecauseits planincorporatedmanyadvanced new generationof planners,trainedprimarilyin the tools
concepts for integratedarea [Link] important of economicanalysis,respondingto an appealingconcept
designfeaturewas to be extensivepopularparticipationin that promisedto overcomesome failuresof what, for them,
project decision making and implementation.A recent weremore familiarapproaches,but which was not so new
Bankstaff paperconcludedthat the earlycommitmentsof as it seemed.
the Mexicanimplementingagenciesto a participatoryap- Fortunately,not all of the lessonshavegone unobserved.
proachwerelittlemorethan wishfulthinkingsinceno local More emphasisis now placed on making participationa
mechanismshad been developed to give reality to the concernof all agenciesengagedin ruraldevelopment,on
ideal.2 economicbenefits,and on [Link], others
Some "New Directions"USAID projectsearlierlooked seemto havegone [Link], we continue
to as prototypesof the agency'snew emphasison popular to see: (a) reliancefor the planningand implementationof
participationhave revealedsimilargaps betweenthe plan- "participative"developmenton centralizedbureaucratic
ning conceptsand the realitiesof implementation.28 There organizationswhich have little capacityto respondto di-
is, as yet, littleevidenceto suggestthat suchexperiencesare verse community-definedneeds or to build from commu-
isolatedphenomenaor that othershave the answer." nity skillsand values;(b) inadequateinvestmentin the dif-
It is frequentlysuggestedthat whatis neededis morepri- ficultprocessof buildingcommunityproblemsolvingcapa-
vate initiativein attackingthe problemswhichgovernment city; (c) inadequateattentionto dealingwith social diver-
bureaucraciescannot manage. Though this view is an at- sity, and especiallywith highly stratifiedsocial structures,
tractiveone, there is little evidenceto suggestthat, when and (d) insufficientintegrationof the technicaland social
undertakenon anythingapproachingthe scale required, components of developmentaction. These are areas in
private voluntary efforts are consistentlymore effective whichthe barriersto appropriateaction have provenmost
than those of government.30 formidableand it is importantto stress the fact that the
Some fairlysubstantialamountsof money are presently lack of money is not the centralproblem.
beingchannelledto the ThirdWorldthroughprivatevolun-
taryorganizations(PVOs),manyof whichhavebeengoing Constraints on Public Donors
througha sometimespainfulre-examinationof theirroles.
Organizationssuch as Catholic Relief Services, Save the If a lessonemergesout of this accumulatedexperience,it
ChildrenFoundation,World Vision, CARE, and Church is that in dealingwiththe poor, redirectionof fundsto new
World Service have built major internationalprograms categoriesof projectsis only partof the need. Anotherpart
based on relief and [Link] the is buildingthe capacityof donor organizations-whether

SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 1980
484 PUBLIC
ADMINISTRATION
REVIEW

publicor private,foreignor national,planneror implemen- sympathetic support required for effective institution
tor-to provideassistancein ways which respondto local building.
needs while building local social and technicalcapacity. In generalthe need is for a flexible, sustained,experi-
Unfortunately,most large donors seem to be under sub- mental, action based capacitybuildingstyle of assistance
stantialpressurenot to follow this latter course-the rhe- whichmost majordonors are ill equippedto [Link]
toric of currentprojectdocumentsnotwithstanding.32 resultis a substantialgap betweenwhat donorsespouseas
Excessivepressuresfor immediateresults, as measured policy and what they actuallyfind themselvespressuredto
by goods and servicesdelivered,driveout attentionto insti- do by their own political and bureaucraticimperatives.33
tution buildingand make it difficultto move beyonda re- (See Figure 1.)
lief and welfare approachto poverty;the distributionof As an example, the Asian DevelopmentBank's (ADB)
food is a lot fasterthan teachingpeoplehow to growit. A statedpolicy in irrigationdevelopmentis to emphasize:(a)
substantialbias towardproject as contrastedto program low cost per hectare,(b) many small farmerbeneficiaries,
fundingcompoundsthe [Link] naturedeal and (c) productiongainswithina shorttime, suchas two to
with time bounded start-upcosts and emphasizefacilities five years. These criteriashould lead it to emphasizereha-
and equipmentto the neglectof the developmentand fund- bilitationof smallirrigationsystems,but, in fact, the costs
ing of capacitiesfor their sustainedoperationand main- are so low and spreadamong so many individualsystems
tenance. Their demands for detailed, up-front planning, that it is difficultto builda substantialprojectloan around
coupledwith rigorousadherenceto fast-pacedimplementa- such work. Thus, the averageADB irrigationloan was for
tion schedulesand pre-plannedspecifications,assumestask $40millionin 1978,withthe pressuresin the directionof in-
requirementsare well understoodwhen, in fact, even the creasingthis averageso the ADB sought furtherexpansion
natureof the problemis ill [Link] it virtually of its total lending.3
ensuresthat the realdecisionswill remainwithprofessional A partialansweris greateremphasison programas con-
techniciansand governmentbureaucratsneitherof whom trastedto project fundingand both the World Bank and
are rewardedfor being responsiveto local conditionsnor the ADB are currentlyexperimentingwith programstyle
contributingtowardthe developmentof local institutional loans less tied to schedules and blueprint style plans.35
capacities. However,unlessinstitutionalcapacitybuildingis included
Emphasison meetingprojectdisbursementschedulesand as an integral part of the loan package, the approach
on terminalprojectoutcomesleads to an insistenceon the assumesthe priorexistenceof strongadministeringorgani-
creationof specialprojectunits, using specialincentivesto zations able to take a responsible,flexible, and locally re-
buy people away from morepermanentorganizationsand, sponsiveapproachin the commitmentof its funds. Gener-
thus, underminingtheir potentialfor sustainedlong-term ally such an assumptionis unwarranted.
action. Pressuresto move ever-largeramounts of money USAID providesits own examplesof contradictionsbe-
quicklywithout commensuratestaff increasesplace a pre- tweenpurposeand [Link] mandateand rhe-
miumon [Link] toricstressparticipationof the poor in decisionmaking,ex-
a consequence,heavy importcomponentsare best able to actly wherethe poor are to be involvedin the sequenceof
absorbsuch largesumsof money on schedule,whereasef- its projectdevelopmentprocessis [Link] fact is that
fective work with the rural poor requiresa high ratio of USAID is accountableto the U.S. Congressand to agencies
peopleto financialinput;and it almostalwaystakeslonger such as the Office of Managementand Budget, not to the
than [Link] a large donor such as the World poor villagersto whoseneedsit is supposedto be respond-
Bank operateswith a few field offices, relyinginsteadon ing. Not surprisingly,the USAID programmeris morelike-
the supervisionof itinerantgroupsof expertswithdivergent ly to be proccupiedwith the needs and involvementof the
views makingquickjudgmentsduringshort visits, thereis groups that arbitratehis programthan with those of the
little prospectof providingthe consistent,informed, and

FIGURE1
Contradictionsin ForeignAssistanceProgramming

Poverty-focusedruraldevelopment Donors remainimpelled to

involvesprojectswhich are: preferprojectswhich are:
Small Large
Administrativeand personnel-intensive Capital-and import-intensive
Difficult to monitor and inspect Easy to monitor and inspect
Slow to implement Quickto implement
Not suitablefor complex techniquesof projectappraisal Suitablefor social cost-benefit analysis

1980
SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER
 AND RURALDEVELOPMENT
ORGANIZATION
COMMUNITY 485

poor beneficiaries;indeed the agency'sproceduresall but of similarsmallmilk producercooperativesthroughoutIn-

ensure it. In preparinga Project Paper for approvalin dia.3'
Washingtonthe USAID programofficermustcomplywith Membersof the villagelevelcooperativesocietynormally
detailedspecificationsspelledout in a guidancedocument own one or two cows and depositmilktwiceeachday at the
of morethan 100pages. One resultof suchrequirementsis collectionpoint maintainedby the society. Specialtrucks
that even host governmentcounterpartstend to exclude collect the milk from the villagestoragevats and deliverit
themselvesfrom the USAID planningprocess,havingnei- to processingcentersoperatedby a cooperativeunioncom-
ther the time nor the patienceto involvethemselvesin the prisedof some80 [Link]
form filling [Link],in the processof avoiding are sold in major urbancentersthroughthe facilitiesof a
the morepointlessroutine,theyarealso excludedfrompar- federationof the dairyunions.
ticipationin the feasibilityanalysis,implementationplan- Studies indicatethat the programoperateswith a high
ning, and budgeting.3'The resultis that whateverlearning levelof efficiencyand lack of corruption,and providesma-
emergesfrom these exercisesaccruesto the USAID pro- jor socialand economicbenefitsto the poorestmembersof
grammersand consultants,not to the local agencieswho ul- the member villages3' while assuring urban consumers of a
timatelywill have the responsibilityfor implementation. regularsupplyof qualitymilkproductsat fair [Link] has
Nonetheless,USAID is on the whole makingthe most also contributedto a weakeningof casteand sexualbarriers
seriouseffort of any largedonor to come to gripswith the as all castesof both sexeshave learnedto wait theirturnin
problemsof improvingon its past performancein dealing a singleline to delivertheirmilk. This representsa substan-
with rural poverty." The number, competence, and com- tial social advancein ruralIndia."
mitmentof the peopleworkingon this problemthroughout Severalfeaturesof the programcontributeto the success
the agencyis [Link] how successfulthey can be, of the program:
given the constraintsimposed by agency's political envi-
ronmentand its own procedures,remainsto be seen. * The benefits are accessibleto the poorest membersof
the communityas evena poor landlessfamilycan main-
tain a cow, a practicewell establishedby traditionin In-
The PositiveSide:Five Asian Success Stories dia.
* The villageco-opsarebackedby a strongand highlydis-
As discouragingas the generalpictureis, not all effortsat ciplined support system which providesat a fair price
participativeapproachesto ruraldevelopmenthave failed. the entirerangeof servicesrequiredfor profitablepro-
This section presentsa seriesof cases from Asia on exper- duction, from veterinarycare and feed to an assured
iences that sharethreecharacteristicsin common:each in- market.
volves a rural developmenteffort which seeks to engage
ruralpeople in their own advancement;each is generally * All technologiesand methodsemployedhave been pro-
ven underlocal conditions.
recognizedas moresuccessfulthan the average;and eachis
dependenton effective programaction more than on a * Everythingis done accordingto carefullydevelopedsys-
uniquely favorable setting. Beyond that, the cases were tems in whichthose responsibleare thoroughlytrained.
chosen for their diversityin objectives, setting, and ap-
proach. These five cases on individualprogramscoverthe * A combinationof strong, externally-auditedmanage-
IndianNationalDairyDevelopmentBoard,the Sri Lankan ment systems, daily paymentsto members,and public
transactions(includingtests for quality of the milk)
SarvodayaShramadanaMovement,the BangladeshRural
AdvancementCommittee,the ThailandCommunityBased leaveslittleroom for dishonestyon the partof co-op of-
ficials. With little opportunity for corruption, only the
FamilyPlanningServices,and the PhilippineNationalIrri-
more responsibleindividualsare attractedto leadership
gation [Link]
the end of the section a brief discussionof some of the positions.
politicallymotivatedpeasantmovementswhichhavebeena * The basic functionsof the villagemilk cooperativesare
significantfactor in modernAsian historyprovidesaddi- so simplethat few demandsare placed on theirleaders
tional perspective. and memberseitherfor communallaboror for complex
decisionsthat might favor one group over another.
Board
IndianNationalDairyDevelopment The strongand sustainedleadershipof VergheseKurien,
One form of village action that has enjoyedmore than the founder and head of the NDDB, is also important.
typical success in the Third World is the verticallyinte- However,anothercriticalfactoris moreeasilyoverlooked:
gratedsingle [Link] the variousex- the processby whichthe NDDB came into being contrasts
amples, which include the Colombian coffee and the sharplywith that of the more typical, centrallyorganized,
Malaysianrubbergrowersassociation,the systemof dairy governmentsponsored,co-op movementsin Asia in which
cooperativespromotedby the IndianNationalDairyDevel- the membersusually have little interestbeyond collecting
opment Board has attractedparticularinternationalinter- governmenthandouts.
est. By the end of 1976a total of 4,530 villagecooperatives The NDDB, which traces its history back to the mid-
witha combinedmembershipof 2 millionfarmershad been 1940s,is a creationof farmersrespondingto a felt need. In-
organized,and efforts wereunderwayto developa system dia's colonial governmenthad contractedwith a private

1980
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486 PUBLIC
ADMINISTRATION
REVIEW

dairy to purchaseand processmilk from villagesin Kaira [Link] will also move simultaneouslyinto a new
Districtof GujaratStatefor sale in Bombay,and the farm- programof vegetableoil [Link] the currentpro-
ers who suppliedthe dairy grew resentfulof the low and fessionalstaff of 600, the new programswill requirethe ad-
fluctuatingpricesbeing offered. Eventually,a boycott of dition of 400 new managersper year for the next several
the governmentschemewas organi7edwhich led, in 1946, yearsto be trainedin a newNDDB establishedmanagement
to the formatinof the AnandMilk Producers'Union Lim- school. The combinationof rapid expansion into states
ited underthe chairmanshipof TribhuvandasPatel, one of whichpresentdifferentinstitutionalsettings,a basicshift in
the [Link] 1947, eight village cooperatives its approachto managementdevelopment,and a move into
with 432 memberswere operatingunder the cooperative a new type of program-possibly foregoingthe long pro-
union. The basic outlinesof the programbeganto emerge cess of [Link] designand organizationbuild-
early as the farmersworked out a scheme responsiveto ing that characterizedthe milk program-will no doubt
their own needs. In 1949, a young man named Verghese placesubstantialpressureson the NDDB. It will be instruc-
Kurien, fresh from a U.S. universityeducation, was as- tive to see whetherit can replicateits own success under
signedby the governmentto a low level positionin the In- such conditions.
dian ResearchCreameryin Anand. Boredwith his unchal-
lengingassignment,he beganadvisingthe unionon the pur- SarvodayaSharamadana
Movementof Sri Lanka
chase of [Link] was later askedby its mem- The SarvodayaSharamadanaMovement(SSM)41of Sri
bers to help them with its installationand the trainingof Lankais both privateand nationalin scope, has a strong
[Link] stayedon to becomemanagerof the co- religiousorientation,operateswithout formal ties to gov-
operative. ernment,and, like the IndianNationalDairyDevelopment
Board,wasbuiltfroma modestvillageexperienceby a bold
Excessivepressuresfor immediate results,as and [Link], whilethe NDDB wasbuilton a
measuredby goods and servicesdelivered, structureof carefullydesignedmanagementsystems and
economicoutcomes, the SSM has given more
driveoutattentionto institutionbuildingand emphasized of its attentionto the articulationof its philosophythan to
makeit difficultto movebeyonda reliefand buildingappropriatemanagementsystemsand has empha-
welfareapproachto poverty;the distribution sized changesin the heart of man over changesin village
of food is a lot faster thanteachingpeople economiesand socialstructures.42 It representsa searchfor
howto growit. a developmentmodel consonantwith the unique cultural
and spiritualheritageof the Sri Lankanpeople.
Kurienlearnedalongwiththe farmersin a villagesetting. The SSMoperatesthroughan unusuallycomplexorgani-
Oncea successfulprototypeprogramhad beenworkedout, zational structure,encompassinga variety of voluntary
largelyby the farmers,it was not passedto someestablished membershipgroups loosely linked by formalized,profes-
organizationfor [Link],a new organi- sionallystaffedadministrative [Link] preferredvil-
zation grewaroundthe prototype-from the bottom up- lage level organization includes individual groups for
graduallybuildingand testingits own capacityto provide youth, mothers, farmers,children,preschool,elders, and
effective support to federationsof primarycooperatives for personswith special educationand skills. At the na-
and addingadditionallayersat its top as the programex- tional level there is a largeexecutivecouncil comprisedof
panded. Appropriatemanagementsystems were worked officers of the movement,directorselectedby the general
out throughexperienceto meet the demandsof the pro- membership,and 35 personsinvitedfor theirparticularex-
gram. The valuesof integrity,service,and commitmentto [Link] regionalDevelopmentEducationCenterswhich
the poorestmember-producers weredeeplyimbeddedin its providethe primarysupportfacilitiesare linkedto the vil-
emerging [Link] staff were hired fresh lagethrough74 [Link]
from school, trainedthroughexperienceon the job, indoc- generallyloosely structuredon the philosophythat indi-
trinatedin the valuesof the program,and advancedrapidly vidual communityprogramsshould emergeas an expres-
as it grew. sion of the needs of the people.43
The process of bottom-up learning and growth from The originsof SSM trace back to 1958when a govern-
within continued for 10 years before the effort extended ment ruraldevelopmentofficer proposedto the principal
beyondGujaratstate, and whenthe NationalDairyDevel- and teachersof NalandaCollege, a small Buddhistsecon-
opment Board was createdin 1965it was with the village daryschool, that they seek to acquainttheir studentswith
trained Kurienas its head. We may assume as well that the problemsof rurallife throughparticipationin a work-
most of the personneland systemsof the NDDB wereab- study camp in a poor ruralvillage. The idea appealedto
sorbed directlyfrom the cooperativesit was to serve and them as a unique [Link] of these
[Link] experiencewith the villagepeople and the teacherswas the young A. T. Ariyaratne,around whose
dairyindustryhad been accumulatedand assimilatedinto philosophyand personalitythe SSM was laterbuild.4
the organizationby that time. The first camp was held in December1958. The village
The NDDB is currentlyplanninga majorexpansionpro- selectedconsistedof 35 Rodiyafamilies,membersof a de-
gramto be fundedby a $150 millionloan from the World spisedcaste that lived by [Link]
Bank and sales of dairy commoditiesdonated by foreign most extremeforms of discrimination,they were barred

SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER
1980
COMMUNITY
ORGANIZATION
AND RURALDEVELOPMENT 487

from attendingschool or evenreceivingreligiousritesas no lages, resultedin a [Link] the

memberof a highercaste, not even the monks, wouldhave trainingcourses,weaknesseswerenoted in coursecontent,
any associationwith them. To enter a Rodiya home or competenceof instructors,[Link]
drinkfrom a cup which a Rodiyahad touchedwas nearly of abuse in the handlingof funds had resultedin the cen-
unthinkablefor a [Link] was, thus, a notableevent tralizationof control over individualvillage programac-
whena groupof 80 students,teachers;boy scouts, andgov- tions, turningthe regionaland extensioncentersinto little
ernmentofficialsfrommiddle-classfamiliesset off to share more than "channelsfor transmittingand carryingout di-
their labor with the people of Kanatholuwavillagein dig- rectivesfrom the centrallevel."4'
ging wells and latrines,constructinga smallroad, and per- With the introductionof major foreign funding, SSM
formingother [Link] participantcontributedeven had introducedradicallynew programactivitiesand orga-
the money for his own food and shared in the tasks of nizationformswhile simultaneouslyundertakingrapidex-
pitchingtents and food preparation. [Link] remainedan im-
The camplastedonly [Link] actualparticipationof portant moral force and continuedto enlist Sri Lankans
the villagepeopleexceptas recipientswas minimal;and fol- from all social stratain the cause of the poor, its develop-
low-up action was left to the [Link] the signifi- mental impact was limitedto a small minorityof the vil-
cance of the camp was not found in the wells and latrines lages in whichit worked.
constructed,so much as in the fact that 80 membersof the When Ratnapala'sstudy appeared,Ariyaratnerespond-
middleclasshad engagedfor 10 daysin manuallaborin the ed by invitinghim to join the SSM as head of its newlyes-
serviceof an outcasteclass. [Link] demonstrate
The timingof the campwas rightas Sri Lankawas in the a continuingcommitmentto the basic philosophiesof the
midst of a social awakeningto the plight of ruralpeoples movement,the studiesof the institutesought to stimulate
and the inequitiesof the caste system. The camp was well soberreflectionon the gapsbetweenthe philosophyandthe
publicizedin the Colombopressandits participantsquickly realitiesof its performance.47 One of its first studiesnoted
won broadrecognition,includinga letterof commendation that:48
from the Prime Minister. Soon other camps, known as
* Candidatesfor layman's trainingprogramswere sup-
Shramadanas,were being organized,each bringingmore
urbanmiddleand upperclass volunteersinto contactwith posed to be selectedby the people, yet some were se-
the realitiesof ruralpovertyand caste discrimination. lected by local influentialseven in directcontravention
In the early 1960sa majorreorientationof the basicpro- of decisionsby local [Link], communitydevelop-
menttraineeswerebeingselectedby the local memberof
gram occurred:its philosophy, based on Buddhistteach-
ings, took explicitshapeand a concernfor sustainedvillage parliament.
level developmentaction led to recruitingthe villagemonk * The villageschosento receiveSSM assistanceweresup-
as a communitydevelopmentworker. The village temple posed to be isolated, inhabited by under-privileged
emergedas the centerof Sarvodayadevelopmentactivity. classes, lacking essential public services, and having
In 1968,a plan was launchedfor the comprehensivedevel-
unique social, economic, or culturalproblems;yet any
opmentefforts in 100 villagesbased on the new concept. villagein whicha few enthusiasticindividualsexpressed
Foreignfundingwas introducedin the early 1970slead- interestwas being admitted.
ing to the establishmentof a permanentheadquartersand
* Wheneverfinancialresourceswere providedcentrally,
bureaucracy.A wide rangeof new, centrallyplannedand
fundedactivitiesemerged,includingthe operationof coop- equal contributionsof financeor labor wereto be pro-
erative farms. In 1975, the 100-villageprogramwas ex- vided by the community;yet the salariesof key village
volunteersand most other expenseswere being met en-
pandedto 1,000 [Link]
to train women who would managepreschoolchild care tirely by the center, includingthe salariesof the pre-
and mother-childfeeding centers, to prepareyouth for school teacherswhichoriginallywereto be raisedby the
communitydevelopmentwork, and to developskillsin ag- village.
ricultureand technical fields. All educationalprograms The studywent on to note that whilethe leadersof SSM
were to instill a commitmentto servingthe poorest of Sri wereonce in directdailycontactwith the villageprograms,
Lanka'spoor. thus ensuringeffective upwardcommunication,they had
In 1978, a case study by NandasenaRatnapala,a local sincebecomeseparatedfrom the villagevolunteersby elab-
universityprofessor,notedthat the breadthof Sarvodaya's oratebureaucraticstructurespopulatedby salaried" 'offi-
membershipinvolvementand the strengthof its spiritual cials' who consider communicationbetween participants
commitmenthad not alwaysbeen translatedinto program and the center as of very little value."4'
accomplishment.45 Though activitieshad been undertaken Though some Sarvodayastaff were not pleased by the
in 2,000 villages, the programswere more or less perma- study, a numberof constructiveactions resulted. Sarvo-
nently establishedin only about 300. Only a fraction of daya'strainingprogramsweresubstantiallyrevampedwith
those eligibleparticipateddirectlyin SSMactivities,mainly emphasison preparingvillagersto make more of the pro-
as passivebeneficiariesof servicesprovidedby SSM staff grammingdecisionsfor [Link] screeningof train-
and the local monks. The leadershiptrainingand desig- ees was [Link] trainingwas done within the vil-
natedpatternsof villageorganizationhad not, in most vil- lage, with each trainingcenter acting as the area coordi-

1980
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ADMINISTRATION

nator. Of the 2,400 villageswhich had some form of SSM staffed by 300 villagerstrainedas [Link]
activityas of January1980,the estimated10 percentwhich goal was to eliminatethe projectarea's90 percentilliteracy
had developedeffectiveSarvodayanorganizations,general- within three years. Enthusiasmwas high when 5,000 vil-
ly the verypoorest, wereto be given substantialautonomy lagersenrolledin the first course. But when only 5 percent
in the planningof their own developmentactivities.5' completedthe course, a reviewby BRAC staff concluded
Subsequently,the ResearchInstitute'sstylewas reorient- that the materialsand methodsused were not relevantto
ed to place itself in less of an adversaryrole. SSM field villager interests or needs. Consequently, a materials
workerswere trainedto engagevillagersin gatheringand developmentunit was establishedin early 1974whichinter-
interpretingdata on their own villagesand programsas a viewedvillagersto determinetheirsubstantialinterests,and
consciousness-raising [Link] discussed developed lessons around these topics. Adult learning
with operatingstaff in the searchfor solutionsto identified methods were stressed-mainly group discussions orga-
weaknessesin programdesignand staff performanceprior nizedaroundkeywords,sentences,and arithmeticexercises
to theirpublication.51 in which the instructortook an unconventionalfacilitator
Sarvodaya'sproblemsare not yet solved. Development role. Materialsweretestedand teachersretrainedin courses
of capacitiesfor decentralizeddecision making in an or- designed to develop facilitation skills. When the new
ganizationaccustomedto centralizedcontrolis not an easy literacycourseswereintroducedto the villages,completion
process. But a new learningmechanismhas been intro- ratesfor the first two were41 and 46 percent,respectively.
duced and seriousattentionis being given to makingit an In health, a modification of BRAC's methods began
effectivetool for programimprovement. even duringthe relief phase when the threat of a cholera
epidemic convinced BRAC's four medical doctors they
couldnot do the job alone. Theyquicklytrainedvillagersin
BangladeshRuralAdvancementCommittee the techniquesof treatingcholeraand severediarrheacases.
One of the most attractiveof the smallerprivatevolun- Thus began a patternwhich all subsequentBRAC health
tary agenciesworkingin ruraldevelopmentis the Bangla- programshave followed: the physician'srole would be,
desh Rural AdvancementCommittee(BRAC) headed by first, as a trainer,second, as a planner,and only lastlyas a
Mr. F. H. Abed, a formeraccountantturneddevelopment curer. The Phase II health system was designed around
[Link] reasonis BRAC'sunusualcapacityfor rapid paramedicstrainedto treat 18 to 20 commonillnesses,pro-
learning-through the constant identification, acknowl- vide innoculations, and educate villagers in preventive
edgement,and correctionof its own [Link] historymay healthmeasures.A cadreof femaleworkersrecruitedfam-
be dividedroughlyinto threephases,each of whichhas in- ily planningacceptorsand distributedsupplies. The area
volved a major reorientationin its programand produced managerssupervisedthese health workerswhile the physi-
significantlessons of broaderinterest.5 cians providedcontinuingtrainingand handledreferrals.
PhaseI: [Link] BRACwas formedin In agriculture,the BRAC workerscultivatedtheir own
early 1972to resettlerefugeesin the Sullaareaof Northeast demonstratinplots at their camp sites, which usuallycon-
Bangladeshfollowing the war of partitionfrom Pakistan. sistedof two acresof rice and a half acreof [Link]
Four medicalteams provideddaily outpatientcare in the was duly notedby the farmersof the area,this was an unu-
four campswherethe BRACworkerslived. Resettledrefu- sualactivityfor [Link] statureof the BRAC
gees were assisted in reconstructinghomes and fishing workersas agriculturaladvisorswas substantiallyenhanced
boats. Emergencyfood suppliessustainedthem until their when their fields producedsome of the best crops seen in
[Link] BRACworkerswereimpressed the area. Farmersin selectedprojectareasreceivedtechni-
that the livingconditionsfor the typicalresettledSullaresi- cal assistancethroughgroupmeetings,as well as assistance
dent were little better than they had been in the refugee in obtainingnew seedsand [Link]-
camps. This was BRAC's first majorlearningand even by talling 300 landless laborers were assisted in obtaining
November1972its energieswerebeingredirectedto a more leases on 500 acres of fallow governmentand privately
developmentorientedprogramof assistance. owned land.53Irrigationand flood control projects were
Phase II: The SectorialApproach. BRAC'searlydevel- constructedunder"food for work" [Link]
opment activitiesconsistedof a numberof relativelydis- includedprovidingfishermenwithboats and with twinefor
crete sectorialprogramactivities:constructionof commu- nets. Specialwomen'sprogramsprovidedtrainingin voca-
nity centers, functional education, agriculture,fisheries, tional skills such as sewing.
cooperatives,health and family planning,and vocational A numberof cooperativesalreadyexistedin the project
trainingfor women-each of whicheventuallyproducedits area when BRAC arrived,though most were ineffectivein
own new learning. servingthe broaderpopulation,havingbeen taken over by
For administrativepurposesthe projectareaof some 200 the largerlandownerswho monopolizedthe benefits gov-
villageswas dividedinto 11 sections,eachwith a field camp ernmentchanneledthroughthem. BRAC was able to re-
supervisedby an areamanagerto whom four to five multi- juvenate many through membertraining,encouragement
purpose development workers reported. A field coor- of regularmeetings,introductionof improvedaccounting
dinatorsupervisedtwo zonalprogramcoordinatorswho, in practices,and initiationof governmentaudits. A number
turn, supervisedthe 11 sections. of new societieswere formed, includingsecond and third
One of the first actions was to open 255 literacycenters tieredstructuresat union and thana levels.

1980
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COMMUNITY 489

As experiencewas gainedin each of these undertakings, a focal point for communitylife and developmentac-
furtherinsightsbegan to emerge. tivitiesprovedunrealisticgiventhe seeminglyirreconcil-
able factionalismwhich dividedmost villages.
* Those who were benefitingmost from the BRAC pro-
gramswere those with relativelylargerlandholdingsas Overall the predominantlycentrally planned sectoral
too few of its programsaddressedthe needsof the land- programshad consistentlygravitatedtoward patterns of
less or near landless. operationthat mainlybenefitedthe more easily reachable
and the relativelybetter-offto the neglectof the more dis-
* While BRAC had been attemptingto form all members
of a village into a single organi7ation,the interestsof advantaged.
landedand landlesswere so opposedthat it was nearly Phase III: The People Approach. Numerous actions
weretakento correctthe deficienciesidentifiedin Phase II.
impossiblefor a singlecommunitybasedorganizationto
servethem both simultaneously. Somewerefairlyspecificsuchas the decisionsto trainfull-
time female village health workersto serve the preventive
* Each BRAC programwas operatingmore or less inde- and simple curativehealth needs of mothers and young
pendentlyof the [Link] overalleffort was not pro- children, and to hire females as paramedicsand multi-
viding each recipient simultaneouslywith reinforcing purposedevelopmentworkers.
benefitsin a way that would achieverealdevelopmental More basic was the shift during1975and 1976towarda
impact. more people centered approach targeted entirely to the
* The program remainedheavily dependenton BRAC poorest50 percentof the villagepopulation-defined oper-
staff and [Link] organizationalmechanismsby ationallyas those familieswhose livelihoodsdependedin
which the communitymight independentlysustainpro- part on sellinglabor to thirdparties-with programinitia-
gramactivitieswere not emerging. tivescominglargelyfromthe [Link] 20 to
30 were organizedaroundsimilareconomic interestssuch
* Paramedicshad become primarilyabsorbedin provid-
as landlesslaborers,destitutewomen, and [Link]
ing curative services, neglecting health education re- functionalliteracytrainingwas used to build an organiza-
sponsibilities,yet their once a week visits to individual
tion, raise consciousness,and lead into joint activitiesre-
villages did not provide adequateaccess to even their
[Link],womenwerereluctantto sponsiveto [Link] example,landlesslaborers
use the servicesof the male paramedics. organizedto leaseland, destitutewomento undertakepad-
dy processing,and fishermento purchassea boat. As pro-
* The impactof the literacyprogramwas [Link] jects were identifiedby each group, BRAC providedre-
materialswere not keyed to direct support of other sourcessuch as creditor "food for work" [Link] a
BRACactivitiesin the villageand those who completed few suchgroupswereestablishedin a villageit had beenan-
the coursehad no materialavailableto readat theirlevel ticipatedthat they would assist in forming other groups
of readingproficiency,while their writingproficiency througha buildingblock processuntil all the poor of the
was not adequate to write an informativeletter to a village were [Link] these meth-
friendor relative. ods continues in certain BRAC project areas. There has
* Developmentof women'sprogramswas beinginhibited been a concernthat the smallergroupsmightdevelopfairly
by the fact that, with the exceptionof familyplanning exclusiveinterests,makingthe processof buildingtowarda
workers,all BRACpersonnelworkingat the villagelevel village-wideorganizationof the poor more difficult than
were men. [Link] was experimentingin its
Rural Creditand TrainingProject and its OutreachPro-
* In severalinstancesthere was no marketfor the voca-
tional skills developedin BRAC [Link] example, gramwith a new approachwhich featured:
women who receivedthree-monthtrainingcourses in * An initialsurveydone by outreachstaff providesa point
sewingusing UNICEF-donatedsewingmachinesfound of entryto the villageand identifiesmembersof the tar-
no marketsfor their productsand could not afford to
get group-i.e., those householdsin whichlaboris sold
purchasemachinesonly for family use. The need was to thirdparties.
for integratedincomeearningprojects.
* Evenwith boats availablethe fishermencontinuedto be * Informaldiscussionsare initiatedat traditionalgather-
exploitedby those who controlledfishingrights,credit, ing placesto identifythe majorconcernsof the poor and
and markets. potentialleaders. The discussiongroups tend to grow
until a villageassemblyis held and an organizationof
* Widespreaduse of the high yieldingrice varietieswas the poor formedto addressthe issuesof immediateand
blocked by the limitedoutput of governmentseed pro- mutualconcernto them.
grams.
* Of some 15,000farmand landlessfarmerfamiliesin the * As leaders are identified they are sent to the BRAC
projectarea, only 300 landlessbenefitedfrom the land trainingcenter at Savar to learn organizingand con-
programand only 600 farmersbenefitedfrom the pro- [Link] contact here with lead-
ductionimprovementefforts. The idea of constructinga ers from similarvillages builds awarenessthat others
Gonokendro(people'scenter)in each villageto serveas throughoutBangladeshsharea similarplight.

1980
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* As group cohesivenessis built, joint activitiesare de- With the changein orientation"participatoryresearch"
veloped based on locally [Link]- techniqueswereintroduced,such as askinga peasantpanel
mentalBRACresourcesareofferedonly afterthe group to discussa designatedtopic and then recordingtheir ob-
has proven its resourcefulnessin utilizingresourcesal- servations.A staff facilitatorkeepsthe discussionwithina
readylocally available. piearrangedframework,but allows the participantsmaxi-
mum scope in exploringthe subject.
* Functionaleducationis introducedonly as the people
Villagers concerned about the misappropriationof
demandit. The curriculumcontinuesto addressliteracy "food for work" grains by corrupt officials inspired a
and numericalskills, but raisingconsciousnessof vari-
studyon [Link] askedBRAC'shelp it was
ous forms of exploitationand buildingcommitmentto decidednothingcould be done withoutmore information.
groupaction are the primaryobjectives. BRACstaff membersstartedrecordingreportsfromvillag-
* Collectiveaction is taken on such concernsas demands ers. This stimulatedstill more reports. Adding data ga-
for a rightfulsharein governmentprograms,bargaining thered from official records, BRAC workersand the vil-
for improved wages, share cropping and land lease lagers determinedexactly how much each individualwas
terms, and schemes to gain control over productive taking and how. When Union Councilsand Thama offi-
assets." cials were presentedwith these facts, "food for work"
grainssuddenlybecameavailableto the poor for theirpro-
* "Food for work" schemessuch as the clearingof land jects. One observationwhich emergesfrom these under-
collectivelyleased for farmingare plannedand imple- takingsis that as researchhas becomeintegralto program
mentedunderthe supervisionof their own leaders. operations,the line betweenresearcher,field worker,and
* Women'sactivitiesemphasizeproductiveemployment, even the people themselvesis no longerwell defined-each
includingcultivationand earthmovingprojects, rather participatesin agenda setting, data collection, and inter-
than conventional women's activities such as sewing pretation.
which would attractwomen of relativelymore well-to-
do families. [Whatis neededforsuccessis]... a highde-
gree of fit betweenprogramdesign,benefi-
* Under the OutreachProgram,BRAC workersare not
basedin the village,thus minimizingthe presenceof the
ciaryneeds,andthecapacitiesof theassisting
BRAC establishment. organization.
The approachof the OutreachProgramgeneratessome BRAC's responsivestyle of programminghas emerged
[Link] financiallymore secure within the frameworkof well developedmanagementsys-
villagersnormallyexcludethemselvesfrom participationas tems designedto facilitatedecentralizedoperationwithina
soon as they learn that BRAC is not providinghandouts strong but evolving policy [Link]'s leadership
and that many of the activitiesinvolvemanuallabor. Sec- style encouragesopen discussionof difficultissuesand ac-
ond, as the organi7edpoor of a villageset about to nego- ceptance of apparenterrors, yet provides firm decisions
tiate for higherwage ratesthey quicklylearnthat they can when they are needed. BRAC's organizationconforms to
be effectiveonly if neighboringvillagesare also organized; the Likertmodelof [Link]
consequently, they set about on their own to organize a regularbasisfor discussionof currentproblems,and each
them. As word spreads,people come from villagesmiles memberof the staff is assisted in developingskills as a
away asking the organi7edvillagesfor assistancein orga- discussionleader.57Continuallyinvestingin development
[Link] the processbuildsa momentumof its own there of new skillsand methodologies,BRACsendsits personnel
is a significantdeclinein the BRACstaff inputrequiredper into the village armed with a good deal more than high
villageorgani7ed. ideals.5'
Phase III also broughtthe introductionof a researchunit ThespontaneousreplicationBRACis observingis prob-
to analyze fundamentalsocioeconomicproblems. BRAC ablythe strongestavailableindicatorthat its programis tru-
staff see researchas a powerfultool for programimprove- ly meetingfelt needs,yet BRACfacessome importantchal-
ment, using it to addressprogramrelevantquestionsrelat- [Link]
ing to the dynamicsof ruralpoverty,seekinginsightsinto been set in motion by the BRAC approach,and maintain-
questionssuch as: Who controlsthat assetsin the ruralvil- ing the momentumof those forceswithoutincurringa ma-
lage and why?55How are some families able to advance jor backlashposes a [Link] is also pre-
themselves, while others become increasinglyimpover- paringto launcha nation-widesingle purposeprogramto
ished?How do peasantsperceivefamine?Credit?Suchstu- train rural mothers in oral rehydrationtechniques for
dies havedocumentedhow populationpressureshavecom- [Link] thousandnewworkerswill be added
binedwith crop failuresto breakdowntraditionallyprotec- to its staff of 378 (January1980figures),s'workingundera
tive social structures,leadingto the conclusionthat access [Link], BRACwill be simul-
to consumptioncreditin time of crisisis moreimportantto taneouslyrunningtwo programsbased on quite different
most poor families than access to production credit.5s [Link] strainsthis may place on its
BRAC is re-examiningits creditprogramsaccordingly. organizationremainto be seen.

1980
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 ORGANIZATION
COMMUNITY ANDRURALDEVELOPMENT 491

Thailand'sCommunityBased FamilyPlanning latest idea. Dr. Kom Pongkun, the Medical Officer for
Services(CBFPS) BanglamungDistrict,provedto be the man. Togetherthey
recruitedfive shopkeepersknown to Dr. Kom in each of
Reachingthe ruralpoor neednot alwaysinvolvecommu- five villagesin [Link] legal re-
nity organizations,as demonstratedby Thailand'sCom- quirementthat birth control pills could be dispensedonly
munityBased FamilyPlanningServices(CBFPS),headed on a physician'sprescription,they providedeach with a
by the colorful and controversialMechaiVeravaidya."As supply of pills and an explanationof their use. The dis-
of 1979it was distributingbirthcontrolpills throughcom- tributorcould chargesix bahts for each
cycle of pills and
munityvolunteersin 16,200Thai villages. keepone as a [Link] weeklaterthe distributorsre-
From 1965-72,Mechai, then chief of the Development portedgood sales. So by mid-February1974, Mechaiand
EvaluationDivision of the National Economic Develop- Dr. Komtrained70 new distributorsin a
one-daycourseto
ment Board, traveledextensivelythroughoutThailandto servethe rest of the district.
observegovernmentdevelopmentprogramsin action. Two
Thoughsome difficultpoliticalbattlesensuedas opposi-
fundamentalconclusionsemerged:(1) nearlyall develop- tion to the scheme
mounted,on May 17, 1974the National
ment programswere failing because they were designed
Family Planning CoordinatingCommittee removed the
from the top down, involvedno participationof the peo-
legal restrictionon pill dispensingby non-physiciansand
ple, and seldomprovidedeffectivefollow-upon completed authorizedextension of the scheme to 23 additionaldis-
projects;and (2) suchgainsas werebeingmadewererapid- tricts. Havingalreadyobtainedfundingfrom the Interna-
ly cancelledout by populationgrowth. He decidedto de- tional PlannedParenthoodFederation,Mechaicompleted
vote himselfto action on both problems. this initialexpansionby [Link] strongestop-
In 1971, Mechai became a part-timeconsultantto the
position had come from within his own organization,the
PlannedParenthoodAssociationof Thailand(PPAT), and
PPAT, he subsequentlyoperated the Community-Based
was appointedits ExecutiveDirectorin [Link] that time
FamilyPlanningServices(CBFPS)largelyindependentlyof
family planningwas availablein Thailand only through the parentorganization.
governmentmedicalfacilitieswhich villagersseldomused. Testing and revisioncontinuedduringthe early expan-
Mechaiwantedto bringit closerto the people. So in 1972 sion. Various
types of distributorswere tried-including
he sent a man to walk througha villageand talk to people
villageheadmenand farmers-and the methodsof selection
about family planning, telling those who were interested [Link]
supervisionand resupplysystems
that therewouldbe a doctorat the local school the follow- weretested:a "G Model"reliedon
governmentmedicalof-
ing [Link] 100womencame, three-fourthsof ficersto selectand traindistributors,providelogisticalsup-
whom had nevervisitedthe governmenthospitalonly two
port, and collectthe funds;in a "P Model"thesefunctions
kilometersaway. A second experiment,using studentsto wereall performedby [Link] lessonswere
recruitvillagersto go to a nearbygovernmenthealthfacility learned:the medical
officers, whose primaryresponsibility
was [Link] concludedthat: (1) the doc- was for clinic operations, could not simultaneously
tor had to come to the people;and (2) the settingmust be managea village-basedsystem, but their cooperationwas
familiar. very important. Thus, CBFPS subsequentlyhandled all
operationsbut paidthe medicalofficersa fixedhonorarium
Beneficiary needs... are a functionof thepo- to act as "medicalsupervisors."Later, when the govern-
litical economic,andsocialcontextin which ment createda new post of districtpublichealthofficer to
thebeneficiaries liveandcannotbeadequately supervise village-basedmidwives,responsibilityfor medical
supervisionwas transferredto them. Lessonswere learned
definedfor purposesof determining program in promotionas well:familyplanningmovieswerepopular,
inputrequirements independently of thatcon- but had little impacton acceptancerates;coloredcondoms
text. made colorful promotionsbut the pill was the preferred
methodamongthe villagers.
A third experimentestablishedthat in Thailandfamily Learningwas also involvedin developingeffectiveman-
planningpromotioncouldbe publicand fun. At a local fair [Link] distributorsestablished
he hiredentertainersto dressup in familyplanningT-shirts that resupplyof contraceptivepills and condoms by mail
and to blow up condomsas balloonsfor the [Link] a was unreliable. Finally a system was devised whereby
familyplanning booth contestantsknocked over cans with supervisorsreceivedsuppliesat their monthlymeetingfor
a ballto win [Link] ticketsof admis- deliveryto the village distributorswho also receivedpre-
sion to a folk dance [Link] paid, pre-addressedpost cards to mail to Bangkokwhen-
stimulatingbad reactions, such unconventionalpromo- eversuppliesfailedto [Link] the samemeetingstatistical
tional methodssubsequentlybecamea Mechaitrademark. reportswerecollected,resultsreviewedand new targetsset.
Such ad hoc experimentationcontinued until January A commissionsystem for supervisorswas introducedin
1974. By that time he reali7edthat if familyplanningwere 1978.
goingto be broughtto the people, someonewithgreaterin- As the programgrew, new layersof managementwere
terestthan the physicianswould have to do it, but he still addedat the top, but to ensurecontinuedcontactwith ac-
needed one unconventionalphysicianto help him test his tual field operations, all staff were scheduled to make

1980
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PUBLICADMINISTRATION

periodic visits to the villages with local supervisors. New perimentswere underwayin everythingfrom pig raising
personnel were introduced into established districts to gain and the financingof latrineconstructionto relief services
initial experience, releasing more experienced people to for refugeesand the marketingof [Link] these
open new districts. undertakings posed rather different technical and organi7a-
In general the learning process which maintained con- tional [Link] of January1980most were still at
tinuing program improvement came not from formal stu- the small pilot stage, with the problemsof building the
dies, but from the immediate experience of the program managementsystemsrequiredto supportlargerscalerepli-
leadership who were in direct contact with villagers and cation still to be faced.
program operations. Mechai observed that:
PhilippineNationalIrrigationAdministration
In the earlydaysI did everything-talkingto the doctors,selecting CommunalIrrigationProgram
and trainingdistributors,follow-up,blowingup condomsfor the
children. The only thing I didn't do myself was the resupply. Line agenciesof governmentsthroughoutAsia are mak-
That'sthe way I learnedmy [Link] I thinkit is a good way ing new efforts to reach the ruralpoor and to encourage
to learn. formationof local organizationsin supportof programac-
[Link], seldomdo thesecentrallydesignedefforts give
At the same time substantial attention was given to mak-
morethan lip serviceto relatingin a meaningfulway to lo-
ing more formal information an effective management
tool, resulting in substantial deviation from conventional,
cally identifiedneedsor to examiningthe managementsys-
tems whichdominatethe agency'sprogramsto see whether
donor-mandated evaluation procedures. Distributor re-
they areconsistentwith a [Link]
porting requirements were gradually, but drastically, sim- whichconstitutewelcomeexceptionsfromthe moregeneral
plified to provide only data essential to program moni-
patternareemergingin Asia, one examplebeingthe efforts
toring. Carefully planned and constantly updated visual of the National IrrigationAdministration(NIA) of the
displays drew attention at each program level to trends and
Philippinesto strengthenits work in supportof communal
highlighted problem areas. Conventional impact surveys associations.
were found to be largely useless since the results took too
irrigators'
Governmentassistanceto smallfarmer-ownedand oper-
long to process and they did not relate to specific admin- atedgravityirrigationsystemsin the Philippinestracesback
istrative units. Thus, a "mini-survey" technique was intro-
to the early 1900s,but it was generallylimitedto the con-
duced in 1978. Each month the supervisor did a house-to-
structionof [Link] 1950s
house survey in a given number of villages, finding out who
and 60s it was dominatedby "pork barrel"politicswhich
was practicing birth control, by what methods, and who
was using supplies obtained from what source. Not only did spreadavailablefunds over so manydifferentprojectsthat
planning and constructionwere often [Link] the
it provide an up-to-date overview of each village, but the re-
early 1970sefforts weremadeto correctthe deficienciesof
sults were put to immediate use. Women who were not
the past, but even with more rationalallocationof funds
practicing birth control were urged on the spot to make use
of their village pill supplier. Older women with several many completedsystemsfell rapidlyinto disuse or served
children relying on the pill were advised about sterilization.
substantiallyfewer farmersthan [Link] theory ar-
Interest in potential new products, such as injectables, was guedthat attentionwas neededto helpingthe farmersform
effective associationsable to performthe operationsand
assessed. By continuously moving from village to village, a
maintenancetasks once constructionwas completed.
given district could be completely surveyed in 12 to 18
months. Research and operations were totally integrated. Consequently,two actions were taken in 1976 by the
NIA, whichwas responsiblefor overallirrigationdevelop-
mentin the [Link] was to concludean agreement
Theseexperiences...illuminate whyeffective with the FarmSystemsDevelopmentCorporation(FSDC),
fit is so seldomachievedin ruraldevelopment a public corporationwith experiencein developingsmall
effortsthroughthe prevailingblueprintap- pumpfed irrigationsystems,underwhichFSDCwouldor-
farmersto operateand maintainmanyof the physi-
proach to [Link] ganize cal which the NIA was constructing."Coordina-
comparative success was basedon a rather tionsystems was to be managedby a centralcommitteecomposed
differentprocessof bottom-up programand of representativesof eachof the two [Link] an
organizational development, a learningpro. assumptionimplicitin thisagreementthatthe technicaland
cess approach. the social sub-systemscould be createdseparatelyand then
merged.
By 1980, between the efforts of various public and pri- The secondaction was to initiatea pilot projectat Laur
vate agencies, the need for easy access to contraceptive sup- in CentralLuzonto experimentwith a moreintegratedap-
ply had been largely met in most Thai villages. Anticipating proachin which the capacityof the wateruser association
this development, the Population and Community Devel- wouldbe developedthroughactiveinvolvementin the plan-
opment Association, which incorporated the CBFPS as a ning and constructionactivities:planningsystem layout,
bureau, was formed in 1977 to undertake a widely diversi- obtainingwaterrightsand rightsof way, organizingvolun-
fied range of family planning and community development teer laborinputsto systemconstruction,and exertingcon-
activities building on the infrastructure of the CBFPS. Ex- trol over projectexpenditures.'2

1980
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COMMUNITY
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ANDRURALDEVELOPMTNT 493

Integratingsocial and technicaldevelopmentprovedex- the organization;and (d) identified conflicts between

tremely difficult. In one community it was learnedhow dif- the new methods and the broaderpolicies and proce-
ficult dealingwith local powerstrugglescan be-leading to duresof the NIA. Assessmentof the initialpilotswas us-
the abandonmentof constructionplansuntilthe local asso- ed to refinemethodssubsequentlyemployedin two ad-
ciationreorganizeditself some two yearslater. In a second ditional pilot systems, also designatedas learninglab-
communityit was learnedthat high level of commitment [Link] possibleto shorten
from a cohesive farmergroup does not necessarilymake lead times, reducethe numberof organizersrequired,
things easier for the engineers:schedulingand systemde- improveproject site selection, and avoid many of the
sign issues resultedin numerousdelaysand changes;orga- conflictsbetweenfarmers,engineers,and organizersen-
nizationof volunteerlabor presentedunfamiliarproblems counteredin the earlierpilots.
workedout only throughlengthymeetings;and farmerin-
* A National CommunalIrrigation Committee. A top
sistenceon monitoringpurchasesand limitingpersonaluse
level workingcommittee,headedby NIA AssistantAd-
of vehiclesusing gasolinechargedto the farmers'loan ac-
ministratorBenjaminBagadionwho is the movingforce
counts was not alwayswelcomedby [Link]
behind the communalseffort, coordinatesthe learning
farmerseven questionedthe engineerson basic technical
process. Committeemembershipincludes central level
judgments, such as the type of materialchosen for dam NIA officials and an FSDC representative,as well as
construction,insistingthat the proposed structurewould
not withstandthe force of local floods. Finally,however, academicallybasedmembersrepresentingthe disciplines
of social science, management,and agriculturalengi-
the new dam was completedusing the design favoredby
NIA's design engineers-only to be washed out a few [Link] committeemembershave day-to-dayre-
monthslater. sponsibilityfor one or another aspect of the learning
The experiencewas soberingin the difficultieswhich it process [Link] held monthlyto evaluate
progress, interpretthe experiencefrom the learninglab-
suggestedthe NIA mustface if it wereto workeffectivelyin sites and other committeesponsoredresearch,
oratory
supportof communitymanagedirrigation;its capabilities initiatenew studiesas needed, commissionpreparation
on both the technicaland the institutionalside wouldneed
of trainingmaterials,and plan strategiesfor phaseddis-
to be upgradedand [Link] oper-
seminationof new methods.
ating procedureswere implied. Yet, it establishedin the
mindsof NIA's leadershipthatthereweremajorbenefitsto
* Process [Link] an integralpart
be gainedin [Link] only could farmerparticipationin
of the [Link] focal concernis with build-
systemplanningand constructionresultin a strongerwater into the NIA the new skills, methods, and systems
user associationbetter equippedto operateand maintain ing
appropriate to its new [Link] out-
the finishedsystem, but it could also resultin a betterde-
side researchersare full participants,their roles dis-
signed and constructedirrigationsystem more likely to
meet farmerneeds. The resultwas a strengthenedcommit- tinguishedfrom those of NIA personnelby theirspecial
expertise ratherthan by any presumptionof specialob-
mentby one of the largestpublicagenciesin the Philippines
jectivity.65
(43,000employees)to build a new capacityfor community
level action. a. Social Sciences. Social scientistsinvolved from the
Thoughstill unfolding,the NIA experienceis off special Instituteof PhilippineCulturehave had three main
of
interestin providinga model organizationalchangeby concerns: (1) developmentand operationaltestingof
whicha large,established,bureaucratic,technology-based, guidelines for rapid collection and assessmentby
public organizationmay be able to redesignits programs NIA field staff of social-institutionaldata ("institu-
and structuresthrougha bottom-up,field based, learning tionalprofiles")criticalto projectselectionand plan-
processanalogousto that by whichthe successfulprograms ning;(2)processdocumentationbasedon participant
of organizationssuch as the National Dairy Development observationin learninglaboratorysites to provide
Board, the BangladeshRural AdvancementCommittee, monthly non-evaluativenarrativefeedback on key
and the Community Based Family Planning Services processeventsto operatingpersonnel,provincialand
[Link] NIA modelhas the followingkey elements:63 regionalmanagers,and membersof the Communal
IrrigationCommittee;(3) study of the organization,
* A Seriesof Time-PhasedLearningLaboratories."Ini- maintenance, and water management methods
worked out by farmers in functioningassociationsas
tially two NIA communals assistance projects were
as laboratoriesin which teams of a basis for NIA assistance to other communalsin
designated learning
NIA personnel:(a) workedout methodsfor integrating working out methods suited to their own circum-
the social and technicalaspectsof systemrehabilitation stances;66 and (4) trainingof NIA personnelin use of
the new tools being developed.
through full involvementof farmersin planningand
construction;(b) built an understanding of the special b. [Link] from the Asian
problemsposed by these methodsand of the capacities Instituteof Management:(1) assess the fit between
NIA would requireto use them effectively;(c) built a requirementsof the new methodsfor assistingcom-
cadre of engineers,organizers,and managersskilledin munalsand existingNIA managementsystems;67 (2)
theirapplicationto facilitatedisseminationto the restof adviseon new managementrolesand procedures;(3)

1980
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ADMINISTRATION
REVIEW

assist in planningthe organizationalchangeprocess; [Link] the pilot systemsin whichthe new appioachis
and (4) coordinateworkshopsfor NIA managersand being developedreceivedintensiveattentionfrom all levels
engineerson the new methods. of managementand [Link] inten-
c. Water Management. An agriculturalengineering sity of input per systemis graduallybeing reducedand the
team from the InternationalRice ResearchInstitute detailsof a phaseddisseminationprocessare beingworked
and the Universityof the Philippinesat Los Bafiosis out with the usual care. Yet it remainsto be seen whether
the new stylesof workingwith farmerscan be sustainedon
developing:(1) simplifiedmethodsfor diagnosisand
correctionof commonwatermanagementproblems a larger scale and whether certain mansgement system
to be used by farmersand NIA engineers;and (2) problems,some of whichfall beyondthe controlof NIA's
simplifiedwatermanagementsystemssuitedto needs management,can be resolved."9
of smallwateruser [Link] will be oper-
PeasantMovements
ationallytestedand refinedin the pilot sitesand then
will serveas the basis for trainingprogramsdirected That the ruralpoor can be mobilizedfor significantac-
to farmers,engineers,and organizersthroughoutthe tion on felt needsis most dramaticallyillustratedby the ex-
country. perienceof successfulpeasantmovements.7Theseare best
known for their efforts to seek relief from the oppressive
* Seeding Pilots. Once the CommunalIrrigationCom- practices of governmentofficials, landlords, and other
mittee hass concluded that a reasonablysatisfactory powerful elitesin mattersrelatingto rightsto land, the ten-
ants' right to securityof tenureand a fair shareof the har-
programmodel and supportingmethodshad been pro-
duced in the learninglaboratorysystems, a workshop vest, and the laborers'rightto a fair income. The peasant
was held in December1979for the directorsof each of movementshave backed their demandswith strikes, civil
the NIA's 12 regionsat whichan orientationto the new disobedience, demonstrations,assassinations,and armed
approachwas [Link] calledon to designate rebellion as suits their purposes.
one upcomingsystem rehabilitationin his region as a The stakeshave, at times, been high and the numbersof
pilot. Each region, thus, would be "seeded" with its participantslargeas demonstratedby the massacreof half a
own learninglaboratorythroughwhichregionalperson- million leftist peasantsafter the abortive1965coup in In-
nel could gain experiencewith the new methods and donesia,71and the overthrow of establishedregimes in
adopt them to [Link] China and Vietnam by peasant based liberation move-
held for the engineerof each provincein which such a ments. In the Philippinesthe Huk Movement,built on a
pilot was to be located, as well as the institutionalorga- historyof peasantuprisingsextendingback to the 1800s,
nizersto be assignedto them. Regularfollow-upmeet- led the resistanceagainstJapaneseoccupationof the Phil-
ings would be held for furthertrainingand to shareex- ippines during World War II.72 The Japanese Tenant
in
perience dealing with uncommon problems. The per- Unions played a prominentrole in the protectionof Japa-
sonnel involvedin these pilots would then be in a posi- nese peasantrightsin the 1920s.73A varietyof tenantand
tion to assist in spreadingunderstandingof the method farm labor organizationshave been influentialin Indian
furtherwithintheir respectiveregions. politics since the 1950s.74
Until the end of the last centurynearlyall suchrebellions
failed miserably.75 Migdalsees a combinationof forces of
Whileawareness is becomingwidespread that fairly recent originas creatingthe preconditionsfor more
the blueprintapproachis an inadequatere- recent successes:(a) severe population growth increases
sponseto ruraldevelopment problems,its as- pressureson the resourcebase on whichthe peasant'slive-
sumptions and procedures continue to domi- lihood depends;(b) withdrawalof the patronremovesboth
nate most rural development a sourceof supportand a sourceof controlbasedon a re-
programming ciprocal face-to-facerelationship;(c) demandsof central
and... mostdevelopment management train- government for new taxesforcethe peasant'sentryinto the
ing. marketeconomyto achievea cash income;while (d) tradi-
tional sourcesof craftincomeare lost to competitionfrom
Work on the first NIA pilot systemshad begunin 1976. modernwageproduction.7'As traditionalsupportand con-
Threeand a half yearslaterthe first stepswerebeingtaken trolstructuresbreakdown, inequitiesin landtenureand so-
to seed the [Link] least three and a half cial structurebecomemorepronouncedin [Link]-
more years would be requiredbefore the new methods nally, the dependenceof the ruralpoor on the traditional
would be understoodthroughoutthe organization."That patron is replacedby dependenceon the imperfectoften
sevenyearsmay be requiredfor such a changeprocesshad corrupteconomicand politicalinstitutionsof a moderniz-
importantimplications,as it extendswell beyond the pro- ing state.7 This new dependenceis less tolerablethan the
grammingcycles of most donors and [Link] old as the peasant has even fewer means of pressinghis
requirescommitment,patience,and substantialcontinuity claims than he did within the traditional institutional
of leadershipto confrontthe difficultieswhichare encoun- [Link] loyalty to the new systemis understand-
teredon an [Link] ably limited.7'
presentin the NIA, therestill is no assurancethe effort will Competition between the alternativepriorities of the

1980
SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER
COMMUNITY ANDRURALDEVELOPMENT
ORGANIZATION 495

FIGURE2
SchematicRepresentationof Fit Requirements

Meansof DemandExpression DecisionProcess

Organizational
modem and traditionaleconomiesfor use of the natural tion policies announcedby a governmenttoo weak to en-
resourcebase-one for the expansionof economicoutput force them. "The major task of the movementis not to
andexportearnings,the otherfor personalsurvival-is also outfight but to outadministerthe government."12
a criticalfactor. Historically,efforts to push peasantsoff Duringthe courseof this powerbuildingprocessa vari-
theirland to makeway for estateagriculture,and morere- ety of demandsare made on the old order. Initiallythey
centlythe competitionbetweenuplandpeoplesand logging may be relativelyminor,but as ruralelitesrespondin ways
interests,have been importantin stimulatingorganizedre- not consistentwith law and custom, the new organizations
sistance.7'The consistentlack of responseto peasantap- become increasinglyradicali7ed,with an escalationin de-
pealsby elite dominatedlegalsystemsfurthercontributesto mandsand the use of confrontationtactics."
the alienationprocess." Importantto the process is a strong, generallycharis-
maticleaderwho can articulatehis followers'feelingsabout
Thedataonpeasantmovements suggest[that] theirrepressedconditionsand with whom they can build a
... f thesuccessof anysuchmovementwas [Link] people traditionallymore
oriented to vertical than to horizontalrelationships,the
an outcomeof projectpapers,socialbenefit- leader first serves as a psychologicalreplacementfor the
cost analyses,environmental impactstate- patronwhoseimageis shiftingfromthat of fatherfigureto
ments, or PERT charts, the source docu- [Link] this displacementtakesplacethe processof con-
mentsexaminedmadeno mentionof it. sciousnessraising can proceed toward developmentof a
sense of horizontalclass solidarity.84
Yet, it is significantthat the strongerpeasantmovements Examinationof the history and dynamicsof successful
havenot beenviolentexplosionsof [Link]- peasantmovementsprovidesunsettlinginsightsinto what
ther, they have bedgunwith patientgrassroots organizing constitute the most deeply felt of peasant needs and a
work, building slowly on the most strongly felt peasant powerful reminderthat participationin decision making
[Link] have createdalternativesocial, and resourcecontrol involvespotentiallyvolatile political
economic,and politicalstructureswithinthe ruralcommu- issues. Implicitis the questionof whetherthe "real" needs
of the ruralpoor can be addressedby workingfromwithin
nity with a demonstratedcapacityto meet the needsof the
ruralpoor moreeffectivelyand to providemoreopportuni- establishedsocietal [Link] cases of successful
ties for advancementthanhas the "legitimate"order.81 Ac- Asian ruraldevelopmentexperiencesexaminedin this sec-
cording to Migdal, in the more successfulpeasant move- tion suggestthat, thoughdifficult,the possibilitymay exist
mentsthe actualuse of violencehas been secondaryto the if action is taken on the lessons they offer.
process of power building. Moreover, while the power
buildingprocessmayincludeforcingthe largemerchantsto Social Interventionas a LearningProcess
relinquishtheir monopoly control over local markets,it
mayalso involvemoremundaneactivitiessuchas providing These cases of relativelypromisingexperiencereflect a
education, medical care, and transportationfacilities- [Link] some of the initiativecame from
even the implementationof rent ceilingand interestreduc- government;in othersit was privateor mixed. Some origi-

1980
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ADMINISTRATION
REVIEW

natedin nationalpolicywhileothersemergedfromthe bot- ined had found to the requirementfor fit variedsubstan-
tom-upas a local effort was builtinto a programwithinter- tially, and each was probablyunique to a particulartime
[Link] dealtwith a relativelynarrowcon- and set of [Link], the commonalitiesthat
cern such as milk production,irrigation,or contraceptive may be looked to as providingimportantlessons are not
distribution,while others took a comprehensiveapproach found in their final programor organizationalblueprints,
to the needs of given [Link] involved but ratherin the processby whichboth programand orga-
specificcommitmentto the poor whileothersmadeno dis- nization were developed [Link] experiences
tinctionbetweenthe ruralclasses. help to illuminatewhy effectivefit is so seldomachievedin
ruraldevelopmentefforts throughthe prevailingblueprint
AchievingFit: BlueprintversusLearningProcess approachto [Link]
Apparentlythe determinantsof successcannotbe found successwas based on a ratherdifferentprocessof bottom-
in an easily replicableprogramvariable-whether private up programand organizationaldevelopment,a learning
or public, multi-purposeor single-purpose,broadlyor nar- process approach."
[Link] successfulbe- The BlueprintApproach. The textbook versionof how
causeit had workedout a programmodelresponsiveto the developmentprogrammingis supposedto work is labelled
beneficiaryneeds at a particulartime and place and each the blueprintapproachin recognitionof its emphasison
had built a strongorganizationcapableof makingthe pro- [Link] key elementsare shown in Figure
gramwork. Put anotherway, they had achieveda high de- 3. Researchersaresupposedto providedata frompilot pro-
gree of fit betweenprogramdesign,beneficiaryneeds, and jects and other studies which will allow the plannersto
the capacitiesof the assistingorganization.(See Figure2.) choosethe most cost effectiveprojectdesignfor achievinga
The concept of fit has assumeda centralimportancein given developmentoutcomeand to reduceit to a blueprint
the fields of businesspolicy and organizationaldesign as for [Link] the implementing
researchhas illuminatedthe importantrelationshipsbe- organizationaresupposedto executethe projectplan faith-
tweentask, context, and organi7ationalvariables,conclud- fully, muchas a contractorwouldfollow constructionblue-
ing that the performanceof an organizationis a functionof prints, specifications, and schedules. An evaluation re-
the fit achieved between those variables."5 Although the searcheris supposedto measureactualchangesin the target
conceptis simple,the elementsthat go into achievingfit are populationand reportactualversusplannedchangesto the
variedand complex,especiallywhen the conceptis applied plannersat the end of the project cycle so that the blue-
to participativeruraldevelopment. printscan be revised.
Betweenthe intendedbeneficiariesand theprogram,the
criticalfit to be achievedis betweenbeneficiaryneedsand FIGURE3
the particularresources,and servicesmadeavailableto the The BlueprintApproachto DevelopmentProgramming
community as program outputs. Beneficiaryneeds, of
course,area functionof the political,economic,and social
context in which the beneficiarieslive and cannot be ade-
quatelydefinedfor purposesof determiningprograminput
requirementsindependentlyof that context.
Betweenbeneficiariesand the assistingorganization,the
criticalfit is betweenthe meansby whichbeneficiariesare
able to define and communicatetheir needs and the pro-
cessesby whichthe [Link]
requirechangesboth at the communitylevel-developing a
way for the poor to expresstheir needs-and the assisting
organization'slevel-developing ways for the organization
to respondto such information."The way in whichthis fit
is achievedwill largelydeterminewhetherthe intervention
builds or diminishesthe community'scapacity for local
problemsolving.
Betweentheprogramandthe organization,the criticalfit
is betweenthe task requirementsof the programand the
distinctivecompetenceof the [Link] task re-
quirementsconsistof whateverthe organization'smembers The project-its identification,formulation,design, ap-
must do to producethe inputsand makethem availableto praisal, selection, organization,implementation,supervi-
the [Link] distinctivecompetenceof the orga- sion, termination,and evaluation-is treatedas the basic
nization relates to the structures, routines, and norms unit of developmentaction."8It becomesthe instrumentby
which governthe organization'sfunctioningand the tech- which planned developmentalchanges are introducedin
nical and social capabilitiesit bringsto bear in providing what otherwisewould be the normalcourseof events." Its
the program.'7 distinguishingcharacteristicshave been summarizedas
The specificsolutionswhichthe variousprogramsexam- follows:

SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER
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COMMUNITY ANDRURALDEVELOPMENT
ORGANIZATION 497

workedout largelyby a group of small village dairy pro-

A project . . has definitegoals, a definitetime-frame,anda care-
ful specificationof resourcerequirements.... Projectgoals take
ducersto meettheirown [Link] youngKurienbrought
manyforms,buttheyall haveonecommonfeature:theyareter- technicaland marketingskills, and out of their collective
[Link] goal concludesthe project."(Emphasis in
knowledgeandcommitmenta strongsupportinginfrastruc-
original.) ture was fashioned,eventuallyresultingin an official pro-
The blueprintapproachhas an appealingsenseof order, gramof nationalscope.
specialization,and recognitionof the superordinaterole of The Community Based Family Planning Service
the intellectualwhich makes it easily defensiblein budget (CBFPS)providesa parallelexperienceinvolvingless com-
[Link], its emphasison well-plannedand plex technologies and support [Link]
clearlydefined projectswith discreteand visibleoutcomes young man of strong personalityand village experience,
is well suited to the constructionof a large-scale,physical Mechai, engagedin collaborationwith villagersto try out
infrastructurewherethe task is defined, the outcomester- an idea for makingcontraceptivesmore [Link] of
minal, the environmentstable, and the costs predictable. earlyexperimentationa programmodel and a well-defined
However, in ruraldevelopmentobjectivesare more often supportingorganizationemerged, growing and adapting
multiple,ill-definedand subjectto negotiatedchange,task with the expansionof the program.
requirementsunclear,outcomesunboundedby time, envi- The program of the BangladeshRural Advancement
ronmentsunstable,and costs unpredictable.' Committee(BRAC) moved rapidlythroughthree distinct
Where knowledgeis nearly non-existent,the blueprint phasesas it learnedfromits [Link] the first stageit
approachcalls for behavingas if knowledgewere nearly largelyacted for the people, in the secondthe people were
perfect. Wherethe need is to build capacityfor sustained drawninto participationin BRAC defined programs,and
developmentaction, it assumesthat developmentactions in the thirdit organizedthe people and respondedin sup-
are terminal and that temporary organizations will port of their initiatives. Organizationalstrength built
suffice.'3 Where the need is for a close integrationof throughthe experienceof the earlierphasesmade possible
knowledgebuilding, decision making, and action taking the thirdphasein whichan unusuallyhighdegreeof fit was
roles, it sharplydifferentiatesthe functionsand eventhe in- [Link],villager,and outreachworkerall en-
stitutionallocationsof the researcher,the planner,and the gaged directly in the process of building and using the
administrator. knowledgebase for improvedprogramdesign. The result
While awarenessis becomingwidespreadthat the blue- provedso powerfulin its responseto felt needsthat a pro-
printapproachis an inadequateresponseto the ruraldevel- cess of spontaneousreplicationwas set in motion.
opment problem,' its assumptionsand procedurescon- The SarvodayaShramadanaMovement(SSM) offers a
tinue to dominate most rural developmentprogramming variation on the three stages of BRAC's development
and to providethe core contentof most developmentman- thoughgrowthwas faster,and the fit was [Link] began
[Link] situationprobablywillcontinueuntil as an effort to (1) provideschool boys with an experience
greaterattention is given to the explicationof viable op- whichwould raisetheirconsciousnessregardingthe life of
tions. poor villagersand (2) help breakdown the social barriers
The Learning Process Approach. Examination of the whichisolatedSri Lanka'smost discriminatedcastes. This
Asian success cases suggeststhat the blueprintapproach early experience,in which its leadershipwas shaped, con-
neverplayedmore than an incidentalrole in theirdevelop- sistedprimarilyof sponsoringshortwork-studycamps. At
ment. These five programswere not designedand imple- this stage therewas a fairlygood fit betweenthe needs of
mented-rather they emergedout of a learningprocessin the schoolboys, the program,and the supportingorganiza-
whichvillagersand programpersonnelsharedtheirknowl- tion. But as the Sarvodayaleadersbecamemore sensitized
edgeand resourcesto createa programwhichachieveda fit to the needs of the ruralpoor, they realizedthe need for
betweenneedsand capacitiesof the beneficiariesand those moresustaineddevelopmentaction. A substantialshift was
of the outsiderswho were providingthe [Link]- madein programfocus, but with too little attentionto im-
ershipand teamwork,ratherthan blueprints,werethe key plementationaldetails prior to the creationof a substan-
[Link] the individualswho emergedas the central tially expandedorganizationto enlargeprogramcoverage.
figureswereinvolvedat the very initialstage in this village The resultwas a highly centralizedand ill-definedorgani-
experience,learningat first hand the natureof beneficiary zational structurewhich fit poorly with programrequire-
needs and what was requiredto addressthem effectively. mentsand had inadequatemechanismsfor relatingto bene-
As progresswas madein dealingwiththe problemof fit be- ficiarydemands,whileisolatingits leadershipfrom contact
tween beneficiaryand program,attentionwas given either [Link]
to buildinga supportingorganizationaroundthe require- severalyears, a researchmechanismwas eventuallyintro-
mentsof the program,or to adaptingthe capabilitiesof an ducedto facilitatefeedbackand correctiveaction through
existingorgamizationto fit those [Link] pro- involving villagersand staff in collecting, assessing, and
gramand organizationemergedout of a learningprocessin actingon programperformancedata.
which researchand action wereintegrallylinked. The NationalIrrigationAdministration's(NIA) newpar-
The NationalDairyDevelopmentBoard(NDDB)is per- ticipativestyle communalsprogramwas still at an early
haps a prototypeof this bottom-upprogramand organiza- stage of development,but it illustratesan expliciteffort to
tion building process. The outlines of the model were simulatewithina largeestablishedorganizationthe type of

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bottom-up program design and organization building pro- than completion of the forms on which accomplishments
cess of the NDDB, BRAC, CBFPS experiences. NIA per- are reported. Where exceptions are found they will nor-
sonnel first worked with village people to evolve a more mally involve an unusually strong individual with a good
suitable program model, and, then, they gradually worked sense of his or her community who has taken the initiative
to build into the larger NIA organization the capabilities in working out a new program which achieves a fit with
needed to achieve a fit with the new program model's task beneficiary needs, but which looks rather different than the
requirements. This included a variety of training seminars, one prescribed by program norms, and is achieved in spite
replication of the pilot project learning experiences, addi- of, rather than because of the larger organizations.
tions of new types of personnel such as community orga- The defeated organization typically portrays a rather dif-
nizers, and changes in organi7ational structures and pro- ferent public image, although its operating reality may
cedures. closely resemble that of the self-deceiving organization. Its
The data on peasant movements suggest an almost re- members speak openly and in rich detail of their organi-
markably parallel to the bottom-up, capacity building pro- zation's errors by way of pointing out how impossible their
cess which built on first-hand knowledge of the people and task is given the perversity of an environment which does
their needs. This has led to the creation of institutional not respond according to their wishes-they externalize the
capacities better able to address these needs using largely lo- source of the error. Thus, error becomes impotence. As in-
cally available resources. If the success of any such move- dividuals reinforce each others' perceptions, they may
ment was an outcome of project papers, social benefit-cost come to feel so totally overcome by circumstances beyond
analyses, environmental impact statements, or PERT their control that they do nothing-except to report their
charts, the source documents examined made no mention problems to higher management in the hope that someone
of it. will do something. But each level feels similarly defeated
and only passes the problem on for attention by still higher
The LearningOrganization
authority. The lack of action further contributes to impo-
Achieving fit through the learning process approach calls tence and demoralization.
for organizations that have little in common with the im- The learning organization embraces error.'5Aware of the
plementing organizations geared to reliable adherence to limitations of their knowledge members of this type of or-
detailed plans and conditions precedent favored in the blue- ganization look on error as a vital source of data for mak-
print approach. Its requirement is for organizations with a ing adjustments to achieve a better fit with beneficiary
well developed capacity for responsive and anticipatory needs. An organization in which such learning is valued is
adaptation-organizaitons that: (a) embrace error; (b) plan characterized by the candor and practical sophistication
with the people; and (c) link knowledge building with ac- with which its members discuss their own errors, what they
tion. have learned from them, and the corrective actions they are
Embracing Error. Preplanned interventions into varied attempting. Intellectual integrity is combined with a sense
and constantly changing socio-technical systems will nearly of vitality and purpose. Such a climate in an organization is
always prove to be in error by some margin in terms of pro- an almost certain indication of effective leadership.
ducing the effect intended. The response to this error is one Planning with the People. Rural people have a great deal
of the best available indicators of the quality of an organi- to contribute to program design." They have a substantial
zation's leadership. capacity for learning and change,'7 but they also have good
There are three characteristic responses to error: to deny reason to be skeptical of the stranger bearing ideas for im-
it, to externalize it, or to embrace it. Every individual has proving their lives untested in their setting. The history of
some tendencies toward each, but organizations develop rural development bears testament to the wisdom of their
norms reinforcing one or another tendency until it becomes caution. One of numerous weaknesses of centrally designed
a dominant characteristic. programs is that planners proceed as if they were writing on
The dominant response in the self-deceiving organization a clean slate and possessing all the knowledge relevant to
is to deny error. If top management treats error as an indi- improving the villagers' life. In reality they are making in-
cation of personal incompetence, the organization's mem- terventions into well-established socio-technical systems
bers will rapidly become highly skilled in making sure that within which the poor have, over many years, worked out
errors are hidden. This can be quite reassuring to those appropriate methods to meet their basic survival needs-
removed from operating reality as it confirms their self im- otherwise they would not still be around. Sometimes they
age as competent leaders. They can impress visitors with have come to terms with harsh trade-offs, as in the case of
their polished briefings, fully confident that their centrally Indian hill tribes that hae learned to plant low yielding, ear-
planned and administered program is achieving the intend- ly maturing grains rather than face the increased risk of
ed impact on the beneficiaries. Such briefings sometimes death from starvation while waiting for the higher yielding
impress the unwary, but the claim that a program is work- varieties to mature." Such knowledge, crucial to any effort
ing exactly as originally planned is an almost sure sign to by outsiders to improve the well-being of the rural poor, is
the alert observer that the organization suffers form a seri- possessed by the people, but easily overlooked by planners
ous information blockage that is hiding errors and pre- who have not had-or do not seek-the opportunity to ask.
venting learning. A trip to the field is likely to reveal a Building on what the people already know and the re-
largely inoperative program able to accomplish little more sources they already possess has numerous advantages. The

1980
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COMMUNITY ANDRURALDEVELOPMENT 499

adjustmentsrequiredfrom them are more easilymadeand adaptit to local circumstancesas required-hass been dis-
the risksof imposingnew methodsunsuitedto theirneeds carded.
are substantiallyreduced. Also, indigenoustechnologies In fact, the effectivenessof a given programdesignis at
are usuallywithinthe control of the [Link] leastas dependenton the presenceof an organizationwitha
on, rather than replacingthose technologiesreducesthe well developedcapacityto makeit work as it is on the spe-
likelihoodthat the programinterventionwill "de-skill"the cifics of the designitself. This is an importantreasonwhy
villagersand, thus, increasetheir dependenceon external pilot project results produced by one organizationare
expertsand suppliersover whom they have no social con- seldomreplicatedby [Link] blueprintapproachim-
trol. The successfulprogramsinvolvedsubstantialplanning plicitly assumesthat any lack of fit betweenthe task re-
with the people, especiallyin theirearlystagesin whichthe quirementsof the programdesign and the capabilitiesof
basic program models were developed. Generally, they the organizationeventuallychosen to implementit can
built from and enhanced community capabilitieswhile readilybe correctedthroughshorttermtrainingand possi-
opening new options. Whereoutside dependencewas in- bly the introductionof new categoriesof personnelsuch as
volved, as to some extent it almost inevitablywas, efforts villagelevel workersat the bottom of an existingstructure.
were made to reducethe attendantrisks.9 Seldomis attentiongivento the implicationsfor higheror-
LinkingKnowledgeto Action. The blueprintapproach ganizationallevelswiththe resultthat the new workersmay
commonly assumes that the knowledgerequiredfor the find themselvesrequiredto conformto inappropriatepro-
preparationof programdesigns can be generatedinde- ceduresand dependenton unresponsivesupport systems
pendentlyof the organizationalcapacity requiredfor its which leave them unableto accomplishthe tasks expected
utiization.'1 This is reflected in its sharp differentiation of them.01'
betweenthe roles of researcher,planner,and administra- By contrast,the NDDB, BRAC, CBFPS,and SSM were
tor-often assumedto be from differentorganizations- all organizationsbuilt up from the teams that createdthe
which inevitablyseparatesknowledgefrom decisionfrom [Link] functioningprogramand the orga-
action. Those personsin day-to-daycontactwith the com- nizationalcapacityto actuateit wereboth preservedin liv-
munity reality and organi7ational function-the ad- ing form and both continuedto evolve in responseto fur-
ministrators,the field operationspersonnel,and the vil- ther experienceand the demandsof [Link] the NIA
lagers-have no defined role in the definitionof needs or case, the field-basedlearninglaboratorieswere sponsored
the makingof [Link] decisionmak- by and underthe operationalcontrolof the agencythat in-
ing role is assigned,instead,to the individualsfurthestre- tended to use the knowledgegained. These laboratories
moved from the relevantdata-the professionalplanners. were designednot only to producea programmodel, but
Such separationis not found in the successcases exam- also graduallyto buildthe experiencewithinthe broaderor-
ined. Especiallyin the earlystagesall threeroleswerecom- ganizationrequiredto make it work. Where researchers
binedin a singleindividualor a close [Link] the wereinvolved,they werein supportingratherthancontrol-
organizationsgrew,the modeof operationstressedtheirin- ling roles.
tegration. Researchers worked hand-in-hand with In each instance the operatingmethods that were de-
operatingpersonnel,planningwas done by those respon- veloped in the early stages were graduallytranslatedinto
sible for implementation,and top managementspent sub- [Link] individualswho had
stantialtime in the field keepingin contactwith operating created and sustainedthe fit were assignedto guide the
[Link] processof rapid, creativeadaptationessential learningexperiencesof others until they too gained the
to achievingand sustainingthe fit on which effectiveper- knowledge,commitment,and skills to make the program
formancedependsnearlydemandssuch integration. work. As the programmoved into new communities,new
It bearsnote that the sameintegrationof rolesis charac- lessonswerelearned,includinglessonson how to maintain
teristicof the more successfulpilot projectsundertakento the fit betweenprogramand peopleas the organizationex-
providedesigninputsto professionalplanners,althoughits [Link] knowledgeand the organizationalcapacityto
significanceis seldom noted. Unfortunately,their resem- put it to work were createdsimultaneouslyby one and the
blance to the early field experienceson which major suc- same process.
cessfulprogramshavebeen builtends there. Carriedout as
researchstudies,they are typicallyunderthe directionof a
ThreeStages of the LearningProcess
special researchteam, possibly from a universityor re- In its idealizedrepresentationthe learningprocess ap-
searchinstitute,and are carriedout apart from the direct proach to programdevelopmentproceeds through three
operationalcontrolof any operatingagencythat mightap- [Link] each stagethe emphasisis on a differentlearning
ply their findingson a largerscale. After a predetermined task, successivelyon effectiveness,efficiency, and expan-
time the projectteamis disbandedand its leadersreturnto sion. (See Figure4.)
the universityto analyzeand publishtheirdata on the pre- In Stage I-learning to be effective-the major concern
sumptionthat the final blueprintwas the key to whatever is with developinga workingprogrammodel in the setting
resultswere [Link] remainsis an idea reducedto of a villagelevel learninglaboratorythat has a high degree
paperwhile the operatingorganization-the vibrantsocial of fit [Link] phasewillbe re-
organism which encompassed the skills, commitment, sourceintensive,particularlyrichin its requirementsfor in-
knowledgeand systemsrequiredto give the idea life and tellectualinput, and will requiresubstantialfreedomfrom

1980
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ADMINISTRATION
REVIEW

normaladministrative [Link] is a timeof investment that will have to be acceptedin the courseof programex-
in knowledgeand capacitybuilding-learning what is re- pansion.ModestprogramexpansionduringStage2 will in-
quiredto achievefit for a giventime and [Link] only creasethe cadreof personsexperiencedin makingthe pro-
does this stageinvolvebasiclearningabout communitydy- gramwork availableto help build the expandedorganiza-
namics, and even learningwhat are the relevantquestions tionalcapabilityrequiredin Stage3. Onceacceptablelevels
to be asked, but it also involves learninghow to learn of effectivenessand efficiencyhavebeenobtained,the pro-
throughan action [Link] in the beginningof gram model reasonably stabilized, an expanded cadre
any learningprocessit shouldbe considerednormalfor er- trained, and basic management systems requirements
rorratesto be high, thoughon a downwardtrend,and effi- workedout, thenthe wayis preparedfor transitionto Stage
ciency low. The programbegins to make the transition 3.
from Stage 1 to Stage 2 when it is found to be effectivein In Stage 3-learning to expand-the centralconcernis
respondingto an identifiedneed and it achievesan accep- with an orderlyphasedexpansionof the [Link] em-
table level of fit between beneficiaries,the workingpro- phasis will be on expansion of organizationalcapacity,
gram model, and the capabilitiesof the action research though continuedrefinementsmay also be requiredin the
team. programto respondto the demandsof largerscale opera-
In Stage 2-learning to be efficient-the majorconcern tion. But constantattentionmust be givento ensuringthat
shifts to reducingthe input requirementsper unit of out- an acceptablelevel of fit is maintainedeven thoughexpan-
put. Through careful analysis of Stage 1 experience,ex- sion will meansome inevitablesacrificein effectivenessand
traneousactivitiesnot essentialto effectivenessaregradual- efficiency. The rate of expansionwill be governedlargely
ly eliminatedand the [Link] by how fast the necessaryorganizationalcapabilitiescan be
there may also be some continuedgains in effectiveness developedto supportit. By the end of Stage3 the program
with furtherexperience,it is more likelythat some loss of should have maturedto the point of a relativelystable,
effectivenesswith furtherexperience,it is more likely that large-scaleoperation.
some loss of effectivenesswill be a necessaryprice of in- Once Stage 3 has been completedthe organizationmay
[Link] Stage2, thereshouldalso be serious turn to the solution of new problems,as severalof the or-
attentionpaid to the problemof achievingfit betweenpro- ganizationsstudiedhad startedto do. Or, if by this timethe
gram requirementsand realisticallyattainable organiza- beneficiarypopulationhas made such progressas to upset
tionalcapacities,recognizingthe organizationalconstraints the fit previouslyattained,theremay be need to repeatthe

FIGURE4
ProgramLearningCurves

V
0

> TIME -Jl

Note: It shouldbe expected that some effectivenesswill be sacrificedin the interestof efficiency and [Link]
efficiency will likely suffer due to trade-offs with the requirements of expansion.

1980
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learningcycleto redefinethe programand realignorgani7a- programblueprintfor applicationby others,the focus is

tional capabilitiesaccordingly. on the wrongproduct-an idea whichis not backedby
The specificsof how each stage is structuredwill differ the capacityto make it operational.
substantiallydependingon whethera new organizationis * [Link] social science
beingbuiltanewfrom the bottom-upor whetherthe task is data may be gathered,presumablyas a basis for plan-
to build an appropriatenew capacityin an existingorgani-
ning [Link] the data are often irrelevantto plan-
zation, as in the case of the NIA. ning, and even if they were not, the organizationsto
Whenthe case studywas prepared,the NIA was in Stage whichresultsare directedseldomhave a capacityto use
2 in the developmentof its new [Link] them for other than selectiveuse in justifyingdecisions
intensityof the researchand organizerinputswas beingre- made on othergrounds."2
duced graduallyin the pilot schemes, certain procedures
that had proveneffectivewerebeingroutinized,and atten- Thus, the productswhich the social scientistis commonly
tion was beinggivento the eventualproblemsto be facedin calledupon to produceare eitheruntimely,or unusableby
achievingfit betweenthe largerorgani7ationand the pro- the consumersto whom they are supposedlytargeted.
gramtask [Link] was also well into Stage 2 Rarelyis the social scientistcalled on to help an organi-
with its Phase III program,as the villagelevel changepro- zationbuilda capacityto actuallyuse socialscienceknowl-
cesses it had initiatedbeganto take on their own momen- edge and data in waysthat wouldcontributedirectlyto im-
tum, increasingprogramoutputperunit of BRACstaff in- [Link] least four exceptionsare found
put. The contraceptivedeliverysystemof the CBFPShad amongthe successcases:BRAC, NIA, SSM, and CBFPS.
increasedefficiencyto the point where it had become es- In each, therehas been a healthyskepticismof the more
sentiallyself-financingand its expansionphasewas already conventionalresearchmethodsand researcherrole relation-
completed;it had completedStage3 and its leadershipwas ships. Theyhaveexperimentedwith new methodsand roles
lookingfor new [Link] NDDB had movedwell in- whichput the researcherin the positionof providingthe ac-
to Stage3 expansionand was also beginningto ventureinto tion agency personnelwith simple tools to facilitatetheir
new fields. rapid collection and interpretationof social data directly
The SSM offers a parallelto the BRAC in having in- relevantto action. To be effectivein these roles the social
troducedfundamentalchangesin programorientationdur- scientistsinvolvedhave led to become intimatelyfamiliar
ing the course of its history, but without reinitiatingthe withagencyoperations,engagingthemselvesin a processof
learning process sequence. Instead, it moved almost di- learninghow they could become more relevantto their
rectlyinto [Link] found itself in client's needs.
a situationsomewhatanalogousto that of the NIA; i.e., a They have sought to demystifythe social sciences,mak-
large establihedbureaucracywith an establishedprogram ing it every person'stool, turningboth agency personnel
that was not producingthe [Link],recog- and in some instancesthe villagersthemselvesinto moreef-
nizingthe natureof the problem,actionwas takento initi- fective action [Link] have stresseddisciplined
ate an internallearningprocessdirectedto achievingim- observation,guidedinterviews,and informantpanelsover
proved fit. formal surveys; timeliness over rigor; oral over written
A look at the successfulprogramsin relationshipto their communication;informed interpretationover statistical
learningcurveshighlightsan importantfeatureof theirsuc- analysis;narrativeover numericalpresentation;and atten-
cess. They were not "designedand implemented."They, tion to process and intermediateoutcomes as a basis for
and the organizationsthat sustainedthem, "evolved and rapidadaptationover detailedassessmentof "final" out-
grew." comes. Ratherthan the static profiles providedby typical
socioeconomicsurveys,they have soughtan understanding
The Social Scientistas CapacityBuilder of the dynamicsof the socio-technicalsystemsthat govern
villagelife as a basis for improvingpredictionsof the con-
It would seemthat the social scientistshouldhave a cen- sequences of any given [Link]
tralrole to playin participativeruraldevelopmentgiventhe havesoughtspecificidentificationof targetgroupmembers
substantialneed for new capacityto addresssocial varia- and behaviorin termsrelevantto programaction.m'
bles; and, indeed, social scientistscurrentlyenjoy unprece- It is not uncommonfor the leadersof programswhich
denteddemandfor theirservicesin the [Link]- havelearnedto makeeffectiveuse of socialscienceresearch
ever, they, so far, seem to have had little influenceon the to drawa sharpdistinctionbetweenthe moreconventional
design or performanceof the typical rural development baselinesurveysand formalevaluationstudiestheirorgani-
[Link] is not surprisingconsideringthe typesof ac- zations do "becausethe donors want them," and the re-
tivitiesthey have most often been calledupon to do. searchintegralto action which drives their own program
and organizationaldevelopmentprocesses. Their lack of
* [Link] generallyconsistsof docu- enthusiasmfor the formeris not out of fear of
exposure,
mentingfailureafter the time for correctiveaction has but out of concernthat these types of researchcontribute
long past. little to improvingperformance,while commandingatten-
* Pilot [Link] the agency tion and resourcesbetterused elsewhere.
with programresponsibilityand designedto producea Thatadministrators and operatingpersonnelcan become

1980
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ADMINISTRATION

effective contributorsto researchwhen its methods and changesthey must make if they are to apply its lessonsare
substancesare appropriateto their needs is perhapsa dis- [Link] example,a portionof their fundingport-
covery as fundamentalas the realizationthat uneducated folios might be programmednot around sectors, but
villagersknow somethinguseful about villagesocial struc- aroundindividualswith the leadershipqualities,the ideas,
tures and the technologicalchoices relevantto their own and the commitmentto advancingthe causeof ruralpeople
[Link] social scientistshave too easily assumed from which substantialprograms might be built. This
that programpersonnelare congenitallyunableand/or un- would providethe recipientchangeagentswith the flexible
willingto assesstheir own performanceand make creative fundingwhichmightallowthemovera periodof five to ten
adaptationsin their own operations. Neither researcher, years to carrytheir idea throughthe three developmental
administrator,nor villageris likelyto achievehis or herpo- stagesto the buildingof a major matureprogram.'1
tential for contributionto developmentuntil they join as The detailsfor both operatingagencyand funderwould
partnersin a mutuallearningprocess,committednot to the vary substantiallydependingon purpose,setting, whether
searchfor magicalblueprints,but to the buildingof new governmentor private, whethera new or an established
capacitiesfor action. organization,whether locally or internationallyfunded,
and the particularlearningstageto whichthe programhad
Conclusion: advanced.15But the essentialnatureof the processwould
A Need for Action Based CapacityBuilding remainmuch the same. The constant elementswould in-
clude the requirementsfor leadership,demandingintellec-
The concepts and methods of the blueprintapproach tual discipline,freedomto deviatefromthe initialplan and
may be more of a hindrancethan an aid in the program- budget, and continuing attention to staff development
ming of effectiveruraldevelopmentaction wherethe need throughaction based learning.
is for an adaptive,bottom-upprocessof programand or- Stage 1 investmentswould representvery high risks for
ganizationaldevelopmentthrough which an adequatefit the funding agency-i.e., they would representa sort of
may be achievedbetweenbeneficiaryneeds, programout- [Link] 10 to 20 percentof pro-
puts, and organizationalcompetence. This calls not for gramsfundedfor Stage 1 mightbe expectedto meritStage
moresophisticatedskillsin the preparationof detailedpro- 2 support,especiallyas the fundingagencyis itself learning
ject plans,but ratherfor skillsin buildingcapacitiesfor ac- how to spot promisingleadsand supportthem in appropri-
tion throughaction. ate ways. But if as manyas one out of 10 turnedout even-
Of course, just as very few centrallyplannedruralde- tually to be a BRAC, an NDDB, a CBFPS, or a national
velopmentprogramsachievethe three-wayfit requiredfor agencysuch as the NIA with a new nation-widecapacityto
effective performance,few of the many village based de- manageeffectivelya $100 million-a-yearprogramin a way
velopmentefforts whichdo achievefit on a local basisever that workedin supportof farmerorganizationand initia-
developinto capacitiesfor sustainedactionon a significant tive, it wouldbe a veryfavorablereturnon investment,and
scale. Perhaps they lack a strategy for progressingsuc- a substantialimprovementover current funding agency
cessivelythroughthe threebasicstagesof learningto be ef- performance.
fective, learningto be efficient, and learningto expand. A significantbarrierto an appropriateresponse from
Even if they have once been effective they may not have fundingagenciesdrivenby the bureaucraticimperativeto
gone beyond this stage to articulateanswersto such ques- move large amounts of money is that a matureprogram
tions as: Why werewe successfulin this instance?To what wouldnot be readyto put largeblocksof fundingto effec-
extent was the outcome context-dependent?What lessons tive use on a sustained basis until the end of Stage 3.'1' A
might have broader application? Under what cir- majorfundermightwellhavedifficultyplacingmorethan 5
cumstances?Or if they have addressedsuch questionsper- percent of its funds in promisingStage 1 programsin a
haps they have not taken the next step of translatingthe givenyear. But to providethe close monitoringrequiredto
answersto these questionsinto problemsolving routines ensurethe availabilityof appropriatetechnicaland finan-
suitedto moreefficientapplicationor of askingthemselves cial supportas neededand to make difficultjudgmentsre-
what type of organizationwouldbe requiredto applythese gardingwhethera given effort no longer exhibitedsuffi-
routineson a largerscale. And, of course,even if they did cient potential to merit continued support, the funding
progressthroughStage2 perhapsthey could not or did not agencywould probablyhave to commitfrom 10 to 15 per-
want to expand to Stage 3. Jut where the sequencemost cent of its staff to the effort. Thus, it would be for the
often stops and why is an importantquestiondeservingof fundera highlystaff intensiveundertaking."07
[Link] clearervision of the learn- A second barrieris presentedby establishedprogram-
ing process approachas a basis for formulatingprogram ming procedures.A demandfor detailedpreplanningand
and organizationaldevelopmentstrategieswould, in itself, subsequentadherenceto detailedline item budgets,project
facilitateremovalof the blockagein organizationswith po- plans and implementationschedules would immediately
tentialfor furtherdevelopment. pre-emptthe learningprocessby imposingthe demandthat
Greaterunderstandingof the requirementsof the learn- leadershipof the incipienteffort act as if it knew what it
ing processapproachon the part of fundingagenciesmay was doing before therewas an opportunityfor learningto
be of particularimportancegiventheirdominantinfluence occur.108
on programmingstrategies and methods, though the Giventheseand otherbarriers,includingthe lack of sup-

1980
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COMMUNITY AND RURALDEVELOPMENT
ORGANIZATION 503

portingresearchand trainingcapacityin managementand "The Role of RuralOrganizationsin PromotingParticipa-

the socialsciencesgearedto its requirements,actionon this tion: Review and Analysis of Past Experience,"Land Re-
proposalpresentsno [Link] the alternativeis form, Land Settlementand Cooperatives,No. 2, 1978, pp.
likely to be a continuingrecordof failurein the attackon 58-63;and United Nations, NationalExperiencein Promot-
ruralpoverty,no matterhow much money is committed. ing the CooperativeMovement:Reportof the SecretaryGen-
eral (New York: Economicand Social Council ReportNo.
E/1978115,1978).
Notes 8. RuralCooperatives,op. cit., pp. ix-x.
9. Ibid., p. 16.
1. WorldDevelopmentReport, 1978 (Washington,D.C.: The 10. Ibid., pp. 4-5, 10;Newinger,op. cit., and Inayatullah,Coop-
WorldBank), p. 7. erativesand Developmentin Asia: A Study of Cooperatives
2. Irma Adelman, "DevelopingEconomics-A Reassessment in FourteenRural Communitiesof Iran, Pakistanand Cey-
of Goals,"AmericanEconomicReview,Vol. 65, No. 2, May lon (Geneva:United Nations ResearchInstitutefor Social
1975,pp. [Link] CynthiaTaft Morris, Development,1972),p. 265.
Economic Growthand Social Equity in DevelopingCoun- 11. Ibid., p. 264. Though sometimeslooked to as examplesof
tries (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1973); Hollis more successfulnationallysponsoredcooperatives,the Tai-
Chenery,et al., Redistributionwith Growth(London:Ox- wan Farmers'associationsare less an exceptionthan they
ford Press, 1974);and WorldDevelopmentReport, op. cit. might seem, owing their existenceto their governmenten-
3. United Nations Economicand Social Council, Commission forcedmonopolypositionin marketsfor fertilizerand basic
for Social Development,Reportof the Twenty-FourthSes- commodities,and to an unusuallystrong governmentalad-
sion, 6-24 January1975, ECOSOCOfficial Records:Fifty- ministrativeinfrastructurewhich ensures strict regulation.
EighthSession,SupplementNo. 3, EICN.5/525; Committee BenedictStavis, Rural Local Governanceand Agricultural
on InternationalRelationsof the House of Representatives, Development in Taiwan, Rural Development Committee
New Directions in DevelopmentAID, Excerptsfrom the SpecialSerieson RuralLocal GovernmentNo. 15, Cornell
Legislation(Washington,D.C.: U.S. GovernmentPrinting University,Ithaca,N.Y., November1974, pp. 61-104.
Office, 1976);RuralDevelopment:SectorPaper (Washing- 12. Ibid., pp. [Link] of the exceptionswere part of the
ton, D.C.: World Bank, 1975); Edgar Owens and Robert Comilla project in East Pakistan, an effort sufficiently
Shaw, DevelopmentReconsidered:Bridging the Gap Be- uniquethat some criticsarguedit should not have been in-
tween Governmentand People (LexingtonBooks, 1972); cludedin the study. Yet, apparentlyeven the Comillacoop-
NormanT. Uphoff, John M. Cohen, and ArthurA. Gold- erativeswere eventuallycapturedby the relativelymore af-
smith, Feasibilityand Application of Rural Development fluent farmersin their serviceareasonce the ComillaRural
Participation:A State-of-the-ArtPaper, MonographSeries, DevelopmentAcademy relaxed the external controls in-
No. 3, Rural DevelopmentCommittee,CornellUniversity, troducedearlierto preventsuch an [Link] W.
Ithaca, New York, January 1979; Solon Barraclough, Blair,"RuralDevelopment,ClassStructureandBureaucracy
"Farmer's Organizationsin Planning and Implementing in Bangladesh,"WorldDevelopment,Vol. 6, No. 1, January
Rural Development,"in RanaanWeitz (ed.), RuralDevel- 1978pp. 65-82.
opment in a Changing World (Cambridge,Mass.: MIT 13. See Lane C. Holdcroft, "The Rise and Fall of Community
Press, 1972); Elliot R. Morss, et al., Strategiesfor Small Developmentin DevelopingCountries, 1950-65:A Critical
FarmerDevelopment,Vols. I and II (Boulder,Colo.: West- Analysisand an AnnotatedBibliography,"MSU RuralDe-
view Press, Inc., 1976);and John D. Montgomeryand Mil- velopmentPaper No. 2, Departmentof AgriculturalEco-
ton J. Esman, "PopularParticipationin DevelopmentAd- nomics, MichiganState University,East Lansing,Michigan
ministration,"Journalof ComparativeAdministration,Vol. 48824, 1978, pp. 5-8.
3, No. 3, November1971, pp. 358-382. 14. For a discussionof how the Etawahdesignand administra-
4. In additionto referencescitedin footnote3 above,see Milton tive structuresdifferedfromthoseof the Indiannationalpro-
J. Esman, "DevelopmentAdministrationand Constituency gramsee GeraldSussman,"The Pilot Projectandthe Design
Organization,"Public AdministrationReview,March-April of ImplementingStrategies:CommunityDevelopmentin In-
1978, pp. 166-172;Mary RacelisHollnsteiner,"Mobilizing dia," MerilleS. Grindle(ed.), Politicsand Policy Implemen-
the RuralPoor ThroughCommunityOrganization,"Philip- tation in the Third World(Princeton,N.J.: PrincetonUni-
pine Studies,Vol. 27, ThirdQuarter1979,pp. 387-416;Mil- versity Press, forthcoming);and Stanley J. Heginbotham,
ton J. Esmanand JohnD. Montgomery,TheAdministration Culturesin Conflict:TheFour Faces of IndianBureaucracy
of HumanResourceDevelopment,draft backgroundpaper (New York:ColumbiaUniversityPress, 1975).
for the World DevelopmentReport 1980, December1979; 15. Basedon Holdcroft,op. cit., p. 15.
NormanUphoff and Milton J. Esman, Local Organization 16. Ibid., p. 23.
for RuralDevelopment:Analysisof AsianExperience,Rural 17. Uphoff, Cohen, and Goldsmith,op. cit., p. 18.
Local GovernmentMonographNo. 19, RuralDevelopment 18. Ibid., p. 19.
Committee,CornellUniversity,Ithaca,N.Y., 1974. 19. Thislist of weaknessesis basedon Idem.;Holdcroft,op. cit.;
5. AsianDevelopmentBank,RuralAsia; Challengeand Oppor- Uphoff, Cohen, and Goldsmith,op. cit., pp. 13-31;Owens
tunity (New York: Praeger Publishers, 1977). See pp. and Shaw, op. cit.; and United Nations, PopularParticipa-
227-230. tion in Development:EmergingTrendsin CommunityDevel-
6. SterlingWortmanand Ralph W. Cummings,Jr., To Feed opment (New York: United Nations Departmentof Eco-
This World:TheChallengeand the Strategy(Baltimore:The nomicand SocialAffairs, 1971).Experiencewithcommunity
Johns HopkinsUniversityPress, 1978).See p. 278. action programsin the United Statessuggeststhat the diffi-
7. RuralCooperativesas Agentsof Change:A ResearchReport cultbarriersto effectivecommunitylevelactionto benefitthe
and a Debate(Geneva:UnitedNationsResearchInstitutefor poor are not confinedto the [Link] idea of work-
SocialDevelopment,1975),p. ix. See also NikolausNewiger, ing throughindependentcommunityaction agencieswhich

1980
SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER
 504 PUBLICADMINISTRATION
REVIEW

wouldsimultaneouslyserveas a coordinatingmechanismand the actualprogramwas largelylimitedto smallfarmercredit

a link betweengovernmentand the poor servedas the basis and subsidizedfarm inputs deliveredby the implementing
for America'sWaron [Link] lackingan agency's own extension agents. A computerdriven man-
organizedpoliticalconstituency,this federalprogramrapidly agementinformationsystemdecidedwho would be eligible
ran into serious opposition from establishedagencies and for creditusingcriteriawhichwerea carefullyguardedsecret,
local governmentsthat felt theirpowerwasbeingchallenged. and calculatedfarmplansand computedcreditrequirements
Effortsto organizethe poor and promotelocalinitiativewere on the basisof a standardformulawhichtook no accountof
[Link] communityaction agenciesbecamelargely local circumstances or [Link]
instrumentsfor implementationof federallyinitiatedpro- activity never got off the ground. In several instancesthe
gramsthroughcontractswith local school systemsand vol- technologypackageprovedinappropriateto farmer'sneeds.
[Link] the poor in program Organizationalimperativesdominatedimplementationto the
initiationand developmentwas minimal,and the impactof virtualexclusionof plan [Link] C. Ickis and David
most [Link] MartinRein, Di- C. Korten, Strategyand Structurein Rural Development
lemmasof SocialReform:Povertyand CommunityActionin (forthcoming).A USAID funded project based at Cornell
the United States, Second Edition (Chicago:Aldine Pub- Universityseekslessonsfrom USAID projectswhichappear
lishingCompany,1973),pp. 224-269. in theirimplementationto provideexamplesof effectivepeo-
20. Sussman,op. cit. ple [Link] difficulty has been encounteredin
21. Idem.; and Heginbotham,op. cit. findingsuch projects.
22. WorldBankAnnualReport1978(Washington,D.C.: World Of coursethe failureshave many causes beyondthe lim-
Bank, 1978), pp. 9-20; and personalcommunicationfrom itation of donor proceduresand programmingskills. One is
Ted J. Davies, January12, [Link],Banklendingfor the lack of [Link]
agricultureand ruraldevelopmentdroppedfrom 39 percent for exampleM. R. Redclift, "The Influenceof the Agency
of total loans in FY 1978 to only 25 percentin FY 1979, for InternationalDevelopment(AID) on Ecuador'sAgrarian
thoughit is claimedthis wasa temporaryphenomenaandnot DevelopmentPolicy," LatinAmericanStudies,Vol. II, No.
an indicationof a new trend. WorldBank Annual Report 1, 1979,pp. 185-201.
1979 (Washington,D.C.: WorldBank, 1979),p. 9. 29. The Inter-AmericanFoundationwas created by the U.S.
23. Agency for InternationalDevelopment,Implementationof Congressin 1969specificallyto fund small-scaleprojectsde-
"NewDirections"in DevelopmentAssistance,Reportto the signed and implementedby indigenous, non-governmental
Committeeon InternationalRelationson Implementationof groupsin [Link]-evaluationre-
LegislativeReformsin the ForeignAssistanceAct of 1973 ports [Link]-American Foundation,
(Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, They Know How (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government
1975),pp. 7-8. PrintingOffice, 1977).Butjudgmentshouldperhapsbe with-
24. In contrastto the conventionalmacro-economicperspective held until more criticalindependentexternalevaluationsare
of earlierreports,the Bank'sthird WorldDevelopmentRe- available.
port highlightsa rangeof socialand [Link]- 30. John C. Ickis and CathrineObernekindly sharedinsights
eralBankstaff membersareworkingto strengthenthe social from theirrespectiveongoingstudiesof PVO ruraldevelop-
and institutionaldimensionsof its own programming. mentefforts. OnePVOthat standsout fromthe restin its de-
25. RobertS. Saunders,"SocialAnalysisin RuralDevelopment velopmentaltrack recordis OXFAMwhich providesfinan-
Projects:A Reviewof Bank Experience,"August29, 1977, cial assistanceto a numberof unusuallyeffective and in-
unpublished. digenous private voluntary developmentorganizationsin
26. RobertS. Saunders,"TraditionalCooperation,Indigenous Asia, LatinAmerica,and Africa.
Peasant'sGroupsand RuralDevelopment:A Look at Possi- 37. For self-criticalanalysesby presentand formerUSAID staff
bilitiesand Experiences,"August 29, 1977,unpublished. see FrankJ. Young, "U.S. ForeignAssistanceStrategyRe-
27. MichaelM. Cernea,MeasuringProjectImpact:Monitoring considered,"The FletcherForum, Vol. 3, No. 2, Summer
and Evaluationin thePIDERRuralDevelopmentProject- 1979, pp. 100-108;CoralieBryant,"OrganizationalImpedi-
Mexico, WorldBank Staff WorkingPaper No. 332 (Wash- ments to Making Participatinga Reality: 'SwimmingUp-
ington,D.C.: TheWorldBank,June1979).Wishfulthinking stream' in AID," forthcomingin Rural DevelopmentPar-
on the participationdimensionof Bankprojectshas not been ticipationReview,and Alice L. Morton,"BriefingPaperon
limitedto the PIDER project.A reviewof 164Bankapprai- Local Action Guidance and Implementation,"Office for
sal reportsfound that more than one-thirdsuggestedforma- Ruraland AdministrativeDevelopment,internalAID docu-
tion of some type of peasantgroup as a componentof the ment.
project activity. In addition, one-sixth indicatedthat the 38. Basic data on the Indian dairy cooperativeexperiencehas
communitywould contributefree labor for constructionac- been drawnfroma varietyof sourcesincluding:A. H. Som-
[Link], discussionof traditionalpatternsof cooperation jee and Geeta Somjee, "CooperativeDairyingand the Pro-
whichmightprovidea basisfor suchactionwas rare,andthe files of SocialChangein India,"EconomicDevelopmentand
implementingstrategiesfor gainingcooperationin eitherpro- CulturalChange,No. 3, Vol. 26, April 1978, pp. 577-590;
vidingfree laboror creatingnew organizationswas generally RuthB. Dixon,Rural Womenat Work:StrategiesforDevel-
left vague,if mentionedat all. Saunders,"TraditionalCoop- opmentin SouthAsia (Baltimore:The Johns HopkinsUni-
eration," op. cit., pp. 13-17. versityPress, 1978),pp. 50-56;GeorgeDorsey,"Milk& Jus-
28. A rural developmentsector loan made to the Nicaraguan tice," Ceres, November-December1978, pp. 31-38; D. S.
governmentconceiveda comprehensivemulti-sectoraldevel- Thakur,"Impactof Dairy DevelopmentThroughMilk Co-
opmenteffort based on local farmercontrolledassociations operatives:A CaseStudyof Gujarat,"IndianJournalofAg-
linked to area [Link] pressureto riculturalEconomics,No. 3, Vol. 30, July-September1975;
show fast results in the absence of adequatemechanisms Annual Report 1977-78of the NationalDairy Development
eitherfor farmerorganizationor intersectoralcoordination, Board;KamlaChowdhury,"BackgroundMemorandumfor

1980
SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER
 AND RURALDEVELOPMENT
ORGANIZATION
COMMUNITY 505

31. Holdcroft, op. cit., p. 3. environmentalprotection reporting requirements-all ad-

32. See E. Philip Morgan,"ManagingDevelopmentAssistance: ministeredby people far removedfrom field [Link] ad-
Some Effects with Special Referenceto SouthernAfrica," dition, it mustbe responsiveto congressionaloversightcom-
SADEX, Vol. 1, No. 4 (January/February1980), African mittees which keep close watch over its operationand de-
BibliographicCenter,Washington,D.C.; JudithTendler,In- mandevidenceof [Link], thereis a sense
side ForeignAid (Baltimore,Md.: The Johns HopkinsUni- in the agencythat many of the proceduralburdensare self-
versity Press, 1975); HarryW. Strachan,"Side Effects of inflicted, resultingfrom a dysfunctionaland unnecessary
Planningin the Aid ControlSystem," WorldDevelopment, overreactionto [Link] Agency'scurrent
Vol. 6, No. 4 (April, 1978),pp. 467-478;and RobertCham- leaderhsipis committedto simplifyingproceduresand to cut-
bers, "ProjectSelectionfor Poverty-FocusedRuralDevelop- ting back personnelon the theory that needlesspaperwork
ment' Simpleis Optimal," WorldDevelopment,Vol. 6, No. can be reducedto suchan extentthata smallerstaff will have
2 (February1978), pp. 209-219. The ultimatebureaucratic ample time to address the more creative requirementsof
imperativein the largedonororganizationis to moveincreas- USAID's developmentprogramming.
ing sums of money. The amountof moneymovedat a given a ProposedGrantto NationalDairyDevelopmentBoardfor
level of staffingis the most visiblemeasureof donoraccom- Establishinga Centrefor Managementand Consultancyin
plishmentand that realitydominatesdecisionprocesses. RuralDevelopment,"FordFoundationOffice in New Delhi,
An Airgramfrom AID/Washingtondated3129/78 on the May 20, 1977; Ford Foundation, "Recommendationfor
subjectof "ProgramGuidancefor FY 1980"estimatedthat GrantActionto NationalDairyDevelopment,"July6, 1979;
the amounts of developmentassistanceavailable for Re- and Devaki Jain, Women's Quest for Power: Five Case
gionalBureauProgramswouldincreasefrom $628millionin Studies(Ghaziabad,U.P. India:VikasPublishingHousePvt
1977to $3,160millionin [Link] the sametimeit notedthat Ltd., 1980),pp. 77-120.
"We do not expectpersonnellevels to increaseas rapidlyas 39. The fact that it accomplishesthis while remainingopen to
programlevels. In fact, the Presidentis currentlycommitted participationby all classesin a highlystratifiedsocial setting
to holdingpersonnellevels down.... Missionsshouldcon- with strongclass conflictsmakesthis case of specialinterest.
sider effective ways of providingassistancethat do not re- See Somjee and Somjee, op. cit., and KamlaChowdhury,
quire large numbersof U.S. personnel."Thus, in UNAID "Non-formal Education and Development," paper
the termcost effectivenesssometimescomesto takeon a new presentedat the Symposiumon AgriculturalResearchand
meaningas in: "We cannotafford to take on smallprojects EducationSystemsfor Developmentof the IndianCouncilof
no matter how importantthe results may be-it just isn't AgriculturalResearch,September5, 1979. How it is accom-
'cost-effective.'" (Emphasisadded.) plishedneedsfurtherexamination.
33. Basedon Chambers,op. cit., pp. 210-211. 40. Reportedlythis wasnot truein the earlieryearswhenharijans
34. Officialsof recipientgovernmentsdesperatelyin needof for- ("untouchables")wereforcedto delivertheirmilk separate-
eign exchangeface a [Link] shift in ly. DavidMollerand ShokMahadevan,"TheMiracleWork-
donorpolicieswhichwouldreduceor delayforeignassistance er of Kaira,"IndianReader'sDigest, [Link] dy-
flows is not likely to be receivedwarmlyby them. namicsby whichthis changeoccurredare not elaboratedin
35. An Asian DevelopmentBank policy permittinguse of the the reportsI haveseen. It shouldalso be notedthatin spiteof
programloan vehiclewas approvedin 1977. A recentstaff its highmarksas a contributorto importantsocialadvances,
paper suggeststhat assistanceon a programbasis may be the NDDB has beencriticizedfor inadequateattentionto the
more appropriatethan conventional project approaches anomalythat, althoughcattle care and milk productionare
where "Administrativeflexibilityis needed so that appro- almost entirelywomen'sactivitiesin India, the membership
priate adjustmentsto changingcircumstancescan be made of most of the unionsis dominatdby menwho areevenmore
rapidlyat the local level without costly delay." The paper substantiallyover-represented in leadershippositions. Fur-
goes on to suggestthat the currentpolicy may still be overly thermore,women receive little trainingunder NDDB pro-
restrictiveand that expandedand liberalizeduse of program gramsand are not hiredfor staff positions.
lendingwouldbe [Link]. Evans,et al., Sector 41. SarvodayaShramadanatranslatesliterally "the awakening
Paperon AgricultureandRuralDevelopment(Manila:Asian of all in societyby the mutualsharingof one's time, thought
DevelopmentBank, 1979),pp. 62-65. See also Asian Devel- and energy."
opmentBank, op. cit., pp. 310-311. 42. For an articulationof Sarvodaya philosophy see A. T.
36. The following is not atypicalof the observationsmade by Aryaratne,CollectedWorks,VolumeI, editedby Nandasena
USAID missionpersonnel: Ratnapala (Colombo: Sarvodaya Research Institute, un-
dated). The theme that Sarvodaya'saccomplishmentsare
Probably80 percentof our staff time goes into completing moreoften reflectedin the growthof the spiritof the people
agency paperwork. Actually the more sophisticatedthe ratherthan in more conventionalindicatorsof village level
analysisrequiredthe morelikelyit will be left to the last min-
ute and be carriedout only to justifydecisionsalreadymade. changeis broughtout in NandasenaRatnapala,Community
We had a full-timesociologistin one missionwhereI was as- Participationin RuralDevelopment:Studyof SevenSelected
Villagesin Sri Lanka (Colombo:SarvodayaResearchInsti-
signedwhosebiggestfrustrationwas alwaysbeingcalledin at
the last minuteto completethe social analysisstatementre- tute, 1978);and NandasenaRatnapala,VillageFarms:Com-
munityParticipationand the Role of Rural Credit(Colom-
quiredbefore the project plan could go forwardto Wash- bo: SarvodayaResearchInstitute,undated).ThevariousSar-
ington.
vodaya publicationscited may be obtainedfrom the Sarvo-
Many of the problemscan be tracedto the complexand daya ResearchInstitute,148Galle Road, Dehiwala,Colom-
often skepticalpoliticalclimate within which USAID must bo, Sri Lanka.
brokerdemandsof manybureaucraticand politicalconstitu- 43. The intendedprocedureis that Sarvodayaworkersand the
encies relatingto such thingsas contractingprocedures,hu- leadersof newlyformedvillageassociationsjointlycarryout
man rights considerations,affirmativeaction policies, and and analyzea socio-economicsurveyand use this as the basis

1980
SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER
506 PUBLICADMINISTRATION
REVIEW

for the planningof activitiesspecificallyaddressedto the the accomplishmentsof the Narangwalhealth project. See
needsof the [Link], however,the datacollectionis in- Heginbotham,op. cit., pp. 44-48;DavidF. Pyle, "Voluntary
adequateand those involvedarenot wellversedin how to use Agency-ManagedProjectsDeliveringan IntegratedPackage
the data for [Link] a resulttheytend, instead, of Health, Nutrition and Population Services: The
to copy ideas obtainedfrom other [Link]- MaharastraExperience,"The Ford Foundation,New Delhi,
napala, The SarvodayaMovement:Self-Helpin Sri Lanka India, March 1979, pp. 22-23;M. N. Murthiand David C.
(Essex, Conn.: InternationalCouncil for EducationalDe- Korten,"An Experimentin Participation,"in StevenH. Ap-
velopment,1978). pelbaum(ed.), StressManagementfor Health CareProfes-
44. For the detailedaccount of the early camps on which this sionals(AspenSystemsCorporation,forthcoming);Allen D.
summaryis basedsee NandasenaRatnapala,Sarvodayaand Jedlicka,Organization for RuralDevelopment:Risk Taking
the Rodiyas:Birthof Sarvodaya(Colombo:SarvodayaRe- and AppropriateTechnology(New York: Praeger, 1977);
search,undated). FrancesF. Kortenand DavidC. Korten,Casebookfor Fam-
45. The SarvodayaMovement,op. cit. ily PlanningManagement:MotivatingEffective ClinicPer-
46. Summarizedfrom Idem. formance (Chestnut Hill, Mass.: The Pathfinder Fund,
47. Basedon interviewswith NandasenaRatnapalain Colombo, 1977).
January1980. 58. BRAC'sintelligentattentionto programdetailsis reflectedin
48. Summarizedfrom NandasenaRatnapala,Study Servicein many aspects of its [Link] example, its paramedic
SarvodayaShramadanaMovement, Sri Lanka, 1958-1976 programis based on analysisof the majorhealthconditions
(Colombo:SarvodayaResearchCentre,undated),pp. 25-35. facedin the projectareas.A trainingmanualwrittento be in-
49. Ibid., pp. 32-33. telligibleto its paramedicstaff spells out simplifiedproce-
50. Interviewswith Ratnapala,op. cit. dures for identifyingsymptoms,and prescribingtreatment.
51. Idem. A rigorous six-month training program is keyed to the
52. In this brieftreatment,I do not distinguishbetweenBRAC's manual which the traineeretains for future [Link]
Sulla, Manikgang,and JamalpurProjects,eachof whichhas BangladeshRuralAdvancementCommittee,TenDiseases:A
its own special [Link] BRAC has formally TreatmentGuide for Medical Paraprofessionals(Dacca:
dividedthe Sulla project into three phases, the concept of BRAC, December1979).
three phases as used here refers more broadlyto BRAC's The carefulattentiongivento developmentof management
[Link] PhasesI and systemsis reflectedin a procedureintroducedin 1976 for
II is based on ManzoorAhmed, "BRAC:BuildingHuman selection of new staff. Candidateswho pass preliminary
Infrastructure to Servethe RuralPoor," Case StudyNo. 2, screeningspend two days in a "selectioncourse" in which
InternationalCouncil for EducationalDevelopment,P.O. they engage in a numberof exercisesfrom BRAC training
Box 217, Essex, Connecticut06426, USA, 1977. Discussion moduleswhichprovidean opportunityto exhibitcommuni-
of PhaseIII is basedlargelyon interviewswithBRACstaff in cation, planning,and analyticskills. During these sessions
Dacca on January26, 1980, supplementedby data from BRACstaff assessnot only the candidate'sskills, but also his
Ahmed, Idem., and earlierinterviewswith BRAC staff in or herpersonality,perceptionof developmentproblems,and
January1977. leadershipqualities,Ahmed, op. cit., p. 64.
53. 1977data. 59. Abed estimatedthat as of January1980this staff was work-
54. Landownerspreferday labor becausedepressedwage levels ing with approximately800 villages,but stressedthis was on-
meanincreasedreturnsto land relativeto sharecroppingar- ly a guess. The spontaneousprocessof replicationof village
[Link] exertingupwardpressureon wage ratesthe organizationsnow in processmakes difficult, and possibly
intentionis to make sharecroppingand lease arrangements eveninappropriateanyeffort to maintainan accuratequanti-
more attractiveto [Link] experimentingwith tative record of [Link] the
schemesthatgive the poor controloverfactorsof production lack of such data would be considereda sign of weak man-
otherthanlandand [Link] example,groupsof poor have [Link] we still have a lot to learnabout the kinds of
been organizedto purchasepumpswith whichthey sell irri- managementsystemsappropriateto particulartypesof social
gation servicesto the landed. developmentefforts. As BRAChas shiftedfrom the sectoral
55. An asset is defined by BRAC as anythingwhich generates approachof Phase II to the people approachof Phase III,
new income or [Link] BangladeshRural BRACstaff have felt it appropriateto de-emphasizequanti-
AdvancementCommittee,ResearchManual(Dacca:BRAC, tative performanceindicators,which inevitablyplace pres-
June 1979). BRAC publicationsmay be orderedfrom Ban- sure on field staff to usurp initiativefrom the community
gladeshRuralAdvancementCommittee,211 OuterCircular leadership.
Road, Maghbazar,Dacca-17,Bangladesh. The emphasisnow is on the "strength"of the villageor-
56. BangladeshRuralAdvancementCommittee,PeasantPercep- ganizationand the "feeling" within the group. The assess-
tions: Famine(Dacca:BRAC, July 1979). See also Bangla- mentsare explicitlysubjectiveand BRACleadersdiscourage
desh RuralAdvancementCommittee, Who Gets Whatand naturaltendencieson the part of field staff fo compareac-
Why:ResourceAllocation in a BangladeshVillage(Dacca: complishmentsin theirrespectivevillages,stressingthat each
BRAC, March 1979);and BangladeshRural Advancement villageis uniquein its particularpotentialsand that specific
Committee,Ashram Village:An Analysisof ResourceFlows accomplishmentsare the responsibilityof villageleadership,
(Dacca:BRAC, undated). not of the BRAC [Link] Abed, as BRAC's
57. The use of the team meetingto facilitateopen, upwardflow methodshave becomemore responsiveto real villageneeds
of communication,a downwardflow of support,and con- and performancetargetshavebeende-emphasized,staff mo-
tinuingin-servicetrainingwas basic to the managementsys- tivationand programaccomplishmentshave both improved
tems of the EtawahPilot Project, shows up as a featureof commensurately-thoughthis is also a subjectiveassessment.
most pilot healthschemesin India, and was probablymore Cautionmust be exercisedin generalizingfrom this experi-
crucialthan the highly touted integratedserviceconceptin ence as it is a functionof BRAC'sparticularhistoryand the

1980
SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER
COMMUNITY ORGANIZATION AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT 507

staff commitment, expertise, and task definition which that tional systems, but as of early 1980 this had not been pur-
history has produced. sued.
60. This report is based largely on an interview with Mechai Vira- 69. One such problem, finally resolved in early 1980, resulted
vaidya conducted on January 28, 1980 with supplemental in- from a conflict between the monsoon season and the Philip-
formation drawn from S. Burintratikul and M. C. pine government's budgeting cycle. The Philippine's mon-
Samaniego, "CBFPS in Thailand: A Community-based Ap- soon season begins roughly in the middle of the fiscal year.
proach to Family Planning," Case Study No. 6, Interna- Funds for communals rehabilitation were budgeted annually
tional Council for Educational Development, P.O. Box 217, by the government's Budget Commission for each individual
Essex, Connecticut 06426, U.S.A.; and Mechai Viravaidya, system to be assisted, although actual releases commonly
"Distribution and Logistics Aspects of Rural Community- were not approved until two or three months into the year,
based Contraceptive Distribution," Asian Centre for Popu- leaving only about two months for construction before the
lation and Community Development, undated, unpublished. rains-which often washed-out incompleted structures.
61. Benjamin U. Bagadion and Frances F. Korten, "Government Funds for a project not expended in the year approved did
Assistance to Communal Irrigation in the Philippines: Facts, not carry over to the next year. The solution was to obtain a
History and Current Issues," Philippine Agricultural Engi- higher priority for communals work which allowed more
neering Journal, Vol. X, No. 2, Second Quarter, 1979, pp. timely funds releases, and to redefine communal irrigation
5-9. work as a program rather than a collection of individual con-
62. For details see Carlos D. Isles and Manual L. Collado, struction projects. This would allow long term planning, a
"Farmer Participation in Communal Irrigation Develop- more flexible approach to preparatory work, and the provi-
ment: Lessons from Laur," Philippine Agricultural Engi- sion of other kinds of needed assistance not necessarily tied
neering Journal, Vol. X, No. 2, Second Quarter, 1979, pp. to a specific construction project.
3-4; and Felipe Alfonso, "Farmer Participation in the Devel- 70. The conclusions that follow do not apply to the more mod-
opment of Communal Systems: Skills and Structural Impli- erate peasant organizations created by members of the rural
cations," Philippine Agricultural Engineering Journal, Vol. elite in an attempt to create a counterforce to the more radi-
X, No. 2, Second Quarter, 1979, pp. 28-31. cal movements, as for example the Philippine Federation of
63. For further discussion see Benjamin U. Bagadion and Fran- Free Farmers described by Blondi Po, Rural Organization
ces F. Korten, "Developing Viable Irrigators' Associations: and Rural Development in the Philippines: A Documentary
Lessons from Small Scale Irrigation in the Philippines," Ag- Study (Quezon City: Institute of Philippine Culture, Ateneo
ricultural Administration (in press). de Manila University, 1977), pp. 56-79.
64. The term learning laboratory is used to refer to a pilot effort 71. Gerit Huizer, "The Strategy of Peasant Mobilization: Some
in which the emphasis is on learning about and refining pro- Cases from Latin America and Southeast Asia," in June
cess. It is geared to rapid assessment and refinement of meth- Nash, Jorge Dangler, and Nicholas S. Hopkins (eds.), Popu-
ods; as soon as it is evident that a method or approach is not lar Participation in Social Change (The Hague: Mouton
producing the intended intermediate outcomes it is revised Publishers, 1976), p. 332.
based on the additional insight generated by the experience. 72. Po, op. cit., p. 34. For a treatment of early peasant rebellions
The concept and its application are elaborated in David C. throughout Southeast Asia see Harry J. Benda, "Peasant
Korten, "The Pilot Project: Formal Experiment or Learning Movements in Colonial Southeast Asia," in Mary Racelis
Laboratory?" The Ford Foundation, Manila, Philippines, Hollnsteiner (ed.), Society, Culture and the Filipino (Quezon
April 10, 1979, unpublished. City, Philippines: The Institute of Philippine Culture,
65. Rather than reports, the research products are new methods, Ateneo de Manila University, 1979), pp. 227-234.
73. Huizer, op. cit., pp. 314-322.
procedures, and training courses. The researchers are mem-
74. K. C. Alexander, "Some Aspects of Peasant Organizations
bers, along with management, of the committees that review
in South India," Rural Development Participation Review,
research products to determine how they will be used and
Summer 1979, Vol. 1, No. 1, pp. 4-7; and Gail Ombedt,
they regularly serve as instructors and resource persons in
"Women and Rural Revolt in India," Journal of Peasant
NIA workshops and training programs.
66. See Romana P. de los Reyes, Managing Communal Gravity Studies, Vol. 5, No. 3, April 1978, pp. 370-403.
75. Huizer, op. cit., p. 307.
Systems: Farmers' Approaches and Implications for Pro-
76. Joel S. Migdal, Peasants, Politics, and Revolution: Pressures
gram Planning (Quezon City, Philippines: Institute of Phi-
Toward Political and Social Change in the Third World
lippine Culture, Ateneo de Manila University, 1980); and
Romana P. de los Reyes and Ma. Francisca P. Viado, "Pro- (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1974), pp.
files of Two Communal Gravity Systems," Philippine Agri- 87-111.
cultural Engineering Journal, Vol. X, No. 2, Second Quar- 77. Ibid., pp. 193-225; Huizer, op. cit., pp. 309, 324-25.
ter, February 1979, pp. 14-18. 78. Migdal, op. cit., p. 230.
67. For preliminary analyses see Bagadion and F. Korten, op. 79. Huizer, op. cit., p. 309. Rapidly increasing alienation of the
cit.; Alfonso, op. cit.; and Felipe B. Alfonso, "Assisting rural poor from the resource bsae on which their livelihoods
Farmer Controlled Development of Communal Irrigation depend is one of the most important development problems
Systems," in David C. Korten and Felipe B. Alofnso (eds.), currently facing Asian nations. This problem is characterized
Bureaucracy and the Poor: Closing the Gap (Singapore: by a rapid population growth and a conflict between modern
McGraw-Hill, forthcoming). and traditional concepts of property rights, as well as the
68. Communals (farmer owned and operated systems) account conflict between subsistence and "development" oriented
for approximately one-half of all irrigated areas in the Philip- uses of a finite land and water resource base. See John C.
pines. The other half is serviced by larger government owned Cool, "Authoritarianism and Development: The Search for
and operated "national" systems. Bagadion and F. Korten, Alternatives," to appear in The Resources and Development
op. cit. The methods being developed under the communals of the Indian Ocean Region, University of Western Australia
program may also have relevance for the NIA's work on na- Press (forthcoming).

SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 1980
508 REVIEW
PUBLICADMINISTRATION

80. Ibid., pp. 331-338. See Po, op. cit., pp. 75-77 for a case cit. for discussionof differentmeansfor achievingthis fit ap-
study. propriateto [Link] basing plan-
81. Migdal,op. cit., pp. 237-252. ning on well-developedknowledgeof the peopleof the pro-
82. Eqbal Ahmad, "RevolutionaryWarfareand Counterinsur- gramarea, and of the strategiestheyemployfor survivaland
gency," in NormanMillerand RoderickAya (eds.),National advancementwouldbe a majoradvancefor most programs.
Liberation,Revolutionin the ThirdWorld(New York:The See Jay K. Satia, "DevelopmentalTasks and MiddleMan-
FreePress, 1971),p. 157as citedby Migdal,op. cit., p. 262. agement Roles in Rural Development," and David C.
Too often the government'sbest efforts at developmentend Korten,"SocialDevelopment:PuttingPeopleFirst,"both in
up being capturedby elites to supplementtheir traditional Kortenand Alfonso, op. cit.
sourcesof powerby establishingapparentcontrolover gov- 87. FrancesF. Korten,"CommunityParticipation:A Manage-
ernmentfunds for roads, schools, and [Link] mentPerspectiveon ObstaclesandOptions,"in Alfonso and
weaknessof many communitydevelopmentand local gov- Korten,op. cit. reviewsthe obstaclesin the typicalbureau-
ernmentprogramswas noted earlier. Huizer, op. cit., pp. craticorganizationto oa participativestyle of ruraldevelop-
324-328. For discussionof this phenomenonin relationto mentaction. See also DerickW. Brinkerhoff,"InsidePublic
governmenteffortsto buildlocal politicalparticipationin the Bureaucracy:EmpoweringManagersto EmpowerClients,"
Philippinessee Po, op. cit., pp. 54-56. Rural DevelopmentParticipationReview, Vol. 1, No. 1,
83. Huizer,op. cit., pp. 328-329;and Migdal,op. cit., pp. 226- Summer1979,pp. 7-9.
256. In contemporaryPhilippinesexperiencethe stimulusto 88. Theblueprintandthe learningprocessapproachesreflecttwo
this radicalizationprocessfrequentlyinvolveslegalactionsto fundamentallydifferentdecisionmakingparadigms:the ra-
alienatethe poor from the land on which they have tradi- tional and the cybernetic,whichhave been articulatedin de-
tionallydependedfor theirlivelihoodto makeway for its ex- tail by John D. Steinbruner,The CyberneticTheoryof De-
ploitationby governmentor largecorporationsin the cause cisions: New Dimensionsof Political Analysis (Princeton,
of "nationaldevelopment."See FranciscoSuling,"The Cel- N.J.: PrincetonUniversityPress, 1974).The implicationsof
lophil Story: Is a Giant Stomping Out the Hill-Tribes?" theseparadigmdifferenceshavebeenextensivelyexaminedin
Who, Vol. II, No. 24, September15, 1979, pp. 8-13; and the [Link] James G. Marchand HerbertA. Simon,
BenjaminBagadion, Jr., Jose Fernandez,RichardFernan- Organizations(New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc.);
dez, et al., Law in the Mobilizationand ParticipatoryOrga- RichardCyertand JamesMarch,A BehavioralTheoryof the
nization of the RuralPoor: The KagawasanCase (Quezon Firm (EnglewoodCliffs, N.J.: PrenticeHall, 1963);David
City: Instituteof PhilippineCulture,Ateneo de ManilaUni- Braybrookeand CharlesE. Lindblom,A Strategyof Deci-
versity, 1979). Other examplesof the use of confrontation sion: Policy Evaluationas a SocialProcess (New York:The
techniquesto mobilizeruralpoor in the Philippinesin de- Free Press, 1963);Aaron Wildavsky,The Politics of Bud-
fenseof theirrightsagainstruralelitesandunresponsivelocal getaryProcess(Boston:Little, Brownand Company,1964);
officials are presentedin MaryRacelisHollnsteiner,"Mobi- GrahamT. Allison, TheEssenceof Decision:Explainingthe
lizing the RuralPoor ThroughCommunityOrganization," CubanMissile Crisis(Boston: Little Brownand Company,
PhilippineStudies,Vol. 27, ThirdQuarter1979,pp. 387-417. 1971);and Naomi Caidenand Aaron Wildavsky,Planning
84. Huizer,op. cit., pp. [Link]- and Budgetingin Poor Countries(New York:John Wiley&
ers almostalwayscome from amongthe relativelybetteroff Sons, 1974). The blueprintapproachto developmentpro-
peasantswho are less dependenton landownersor richfarm- grammingis derivativeof the rationalparadigm,whichad-
ers and who may havehad an [Link]- dresseshow decisionsshould be madewherea singleactor is
guesthat the peasantslackthe necessaryorganizationalabili- [Link] learningprocessmodelis derivativeof the cy-
ty and haveto dependin the earlystageson outsidersto pro- berneticparadigmwhich providesa more accuratedescrip-
vide it. Op. cit., p. 232. Thereis evidencethat the effective tion of how decisionsareactuallymadeand is moreusefulin
leaderstendto be frommoreadvantagedclassesethanthe led the analysisand improvementof complex decision making
even in more moderatetypes of communityorganization. systems. Although not in itself normative,the cybernetic
CristinaMontiel, Rural Organizationsand RuralDevelop- paradigmservesas the basic for a numberof importantnor-
ment in the Philippines:A Field Study(QuezonCity: Insti- mative models of learningprocess, organizationaldesign,
tute of Philippine Culture:Ateneo de Manila University, [Link],see DonaldN. Michael,On
1977),p. 117. Learningto Plan-and Plenning to Learn (San Francisco:
85. For a discussionof the conceptof fit anda reviewof the sup- Jossey-BassPublishers,1973);Stafford Beer, Platformfor
portingresearchsee Jay R. Galbraithand DanielA. Nathan- Change(London:JohnWiley& Sons, Inc., 1974);Raymond
son, StrategyImplementation:The Role of Structureand A. Bauerand Rikk Larsen, "The Convergenceof What Is
Process(St. Paul, Minn.:West PublishingCompany,1978), and What ShouldBe," WorkingPaper HBS 74-7, Division
especiallypp. 90-97. The researchof John C. Ickishas been of Research,GraduateSchool of BusinessAdministration,
instrumentalin demonstratingthe utility of the concept in HarvardUniversity,Boston, Mass., March20, 1974;Jay R.
[Link] John C. Ickis, "Strategyand Struc- Galbraith,OrganizationDesign (Reading,Mass.: Addison-
ture in RuralDevelopment,"HarvardBusinessSchool doc- WesleyPublishingCompany,1977);RussellL. Ackoff, "Na-
toral dissertation,Boston, Mass., 1978;and John C. Ickis, tional DevelopmentPlanning Revisited," OperationsRe-
"RuralDevelopmentManagement:Strategy,Structure,and search, Vol. 25, No. 2, March-April1977, pp. 207-218;
ManagerialRoles," in David C. Korten(ed.), Population Aaron Wildavsky,SpeakingTruthto Power: The Art and
and SocialDevelopmentManagement:A ChallengeforMan- Craftof PolicyAnalysis(Boston:LittleBrown, 1979);David
agementSchools (Caracas:Institutode EstudiosSuperiores C. Korten,"Towarda Technologyfor ManagingSocialDe-
de Administracion,1979), pp. 113-126. See also Sussman, velopment," in Korten, Population, op. cit., pp. 20-50;
op. cit.; Kortenand Alfonso, op. cit.; and Ickisand Korten, James W. Botkin, Mahdi Elmandjra,MirceaMalitza, No
op. cit. Limitsto Learning:Bridgingthe Human Gap (Oxford:Per-
86. See Montgomeryand Esman, "PopularParticipation,"op. gamon Press, 1979);and BruceF. Johnstonand WilliamC.

1980
SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER
 AND RURALDEVELOPMENT
ORGANIZATION
COMMUNITY 509

Clark, On DesigningStrategiesfor Rural Development:A Caidenand Wildavsky,op. cit.; Morss,et al., op. cit.; Sweet
Policy AnalysisPerspective(in preparation). and Weisel, op. cit.; and Korten,"Towarda Technology,"
89. Abbreviatedversionsof the projectcycledescribedby Dennis op. cit. For a comprehensivereview see MarcusD. Ingle,
A. Rondinelli, "Planning and ImplementingDevelopment "ImplementingDevelopmentPrograms:A State-of-the-Art
Projects:An Introduction,"in Dennis A. Rondinelli(ed.), Review," final reportpreparedfor the Office of RuralDe-
PlanningDevelopmentProjects(Stroudsburg,Pa.: Dowden, velopmentand DevelopmentAdministration,Development
Hutchinson& Ross, Inc., 1977),p. 5. Rondinellistressesthat Support Bureau, U.S. Agency for InternationalDevelop-
the formalmodelof the projectcycledescribeshow it is sup- ment, January1979.
posed to work, but that reality often departssubstantially 95. This discussionwas substantiallyinfluencedby Michael,op.
from the [Link]., pp. 4-17. Rondinellicorrectly cit.
challengesproject management'simperiousrationalitybut 96. In the Puebla Project in Mexico, agriculturaltechnicians
fails to questionthe basicconceptof the projectas thecentral learnedfrom local farmersthe advantagesof intercropping,
focus of [Link] membersof De- an experiencewhich led the Mexicangovernmentin early
velopmentAlternatives,Inc. havegivensubstantialattention 1975to establisha centerfor trainingagriculturalresearchers
to the limitationsof ruraldevelopmentprojectsdesignedby and extensionistsin a new participatoryR&D model. Re-
the blueprintmodeland havepioneeredthe developmentof a ported by WilliamF. Whyte and Lynn Gostyla, "Toward
processmodelof [Link] al., op. cit., New Modelsof AgriculturalResearchand Development"to
pp. 208-222, and Charles F. Sweet and Peter F. Weisel, be includedas a chapterin a forthcomingbook by Whiteon
"ProcessVersusBlueprintModels for DesigningRuralDe- new approachesto the generationof appropriateknowledge
velopmentProjects," in George Honadle and Rudi Klauss for ruraldevelopment.
(eds.), InternationalDevelopmentAdministration:Imple- The idea that the expertsmightlearnfromruralpeoplesis
mentationAnalysisfor DevelopmentProjects (New York: not new, but has onlyrecentlyattractedmorethancuriousin-
PraegerPublishers,1979),pp. [Link] theirargu- terest. See Lowell S. Hardin, "EmergingRoles of Agricul-
mentsparallelthose of the presentstudy;however,theyjoin turalEconomistsWorkingin InternationalResearchInstitu-
Rondinelliin failingto suggestthat the projectconceptitself tions such as IRRI and CIMMYT"and MichaelCollison,
and its emphasison breakingdevelopmentup into discrete, "AgrarianChange, the Challengefor AgriculturalEcono-
time-boundedpieces may be the real heart of the problem. mists," both are paperspresentedat the 17thConferenceof
Chambers,however,madethe point a numberof yearsago. the InternationalAssociation of AgriculturalEconomists,
RobertChambers,ManagingRuralDevelopment:Ideas and Banff, Canada,September1979. See also the IDS Bulletin,
Experiencefrom East Africa (New York: Africana Pub- Vol. 10, No. 2, January1979, edited by RobertChambers,
lishingCo., 1974),pp. 29-31. devotedentirelyto the theme "RuralDevelopment:Whose
90. NationalEconomicand DevelopmentAuthority,A Guideto KnowledgeCounts?" In additionto an excellentreviewof
ProjectDevelopment(Manila:NEDA, 1978),p. 6. the importanceof indigenoustechnicalknowledge,various
91. "On Projects," PasitamNewsletter:TheDesign Process in authorsdiscussappropriatemethodologiesfor elicitingand
Development,No. 15, Summer1977,p. 1. It shouldbe noted applyingsuch knowledgein ruraldevelopmentprograms.
that projectorganizationper se is not anti-developmental, if 97. MichaelRedclift,"ProductionProgramsfor SmallFarmers:
carriedout withina largermore permanentinstitutionalset- Plan Puebla as Myth and Reality," The Ford Foundation,
ting specificallygeared to the project mode of operation. Office for Mexicoand CentralAmerica,January1980pro-
However,this is seldomthe settinginto whichprojectorgani- videsa usefulperspectiveon the waysin whichMexicancorn
zationsare introducedin the ThirdWorld. farmersadaptedratherthanadoptedthe technologiesof Plan
92. Morgan,op. cit., pp.1-6;and BruceF. JohnstonandWilliam Puebla, resultingin substantialincreasesin productionbut
C. Clark, "Food, Health and Population:Policy Analysis using variedtechnologypackageswhich often differedsub-
and Development Priorities in Low-Income Countries," stantiallyfrom that offeredby the [Link]
Working Paper 79-52, InternationalInstitute for Applied thatincreasingthe effectivenessof agriculturalextensionmay
SystemsAnalysis,A-2361Laxenburg,Austria,pp. 66-74. be dependenton a better understandingof this adaptation
93. BruceF. Johnston," 'Integration'and 'BasicNeeds'in Stra- process, and urges that "New approachesto workingwith
tegiesfor RuralDevelopment,"in "RuralDevelopmentStra- small farmersbegin by askingwhy farmerschoose to act as
tegies:A Surveyof Policy Optionsand the Conceptsof Inte- they do." Ibid., p. 31. Peter Hildebrandhas describeda
grationand BasicNeeds," a reportto the Officeof Ruraland methodologyused in Guatemalato do just this. A multi-
AdministrativeDevelopment,U.S. Agencyfor International disciplinaryteamgoes to the field to learnthe methodsbeing
Development,October15, 1979,pp. [Link] WorldBank, usedby farmersand theirsocial, economic,and technicalra-
the primaryoffender,is graduallymovingaway from insist- [Link] suchunderstanding is assimilateddo the ex-
ing on creationof suchprojectmanagementunits,partlydue pertsattemptto makerecommendations to the farmerswhich
to the rebellionof its [Link] ruraldevelopmentfew they believethe farmerswouldfind to be improvementscon-
importantoutcomes are [Link] clinic is ter- [Link] field testedand
[Link] healthof a ruralpopu- those whichseem to have meritare passedon to farmersfor
lation is not. Constructingan irrigationsystemis terminal. considerationand implementationon their own fields with
Improvingand sustainingefficient, reliable, and equitable assistancefromthe [Link] secondyearthe farmersare on
accessto wateris not. Muchof the ThirdWorldcountryside theirown, with the researchersobservingto see whichprac-
is alreadyover suppliedwith underutilizedclinicsand irriga- tices they find sufficientlyattractiveto [Link] thse
tion facilitieswhich serve only a fractionof their designed practicesare consideredto have potential for broaderdis-
serviceareawhichservesas sobertestimonyto the limitations semination. Personal interview and "Motivating Small
of a terminalapproachto development. Farmersto Accept Change,"paperpresentedat the confer-
94. Chambers,ManagingRural, op. cit.; Chambers,"Project enceon IntegratedCropand AnimalProductionto Optimize
Selection," op. cit.; Morgan, op. cit.; Ackoff, op. cit.; ResourceUtilizationon Small Farmsin DevelopingCoun-

1980
SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER
510 PUBLICADMINISTRATION
REVIEW

tries," The Rockefeller Foundation Conference Center, take the idea throughStage I development,but with the un-
Bellagio, Italy, October 18-23, 1978, Institutode Cienciay derstandingthat therewouldbe maximumfreedomto revise
TechnologiaAgricolas,Guatemala,C.A., October1978. both strategyand budget as emergingexperiencedictated.
98. Ranjit Gupta, "The PovertyTrap: Lessons from Dharam- The time requiredwill varysubstantiallywith the complexity
pur," in Kortenand Alfonso, op. cit. of the activity,but will seldombe lessthantwo to threeyears.
99. The CBFPSinvolveddeliveryof an externallydeliveredcon- 105. Unless progressindicatedearlier action, at the end of an
traceptivetechnology,but reduceddependenceon the clinic agreed period an assessmentwould determinewhetherthe
and regularcommercialsourcesby introducinga redundant undertakingshouldterminate,proceedwith furtherStage 1
outlet undervillage control. In the case of the NDDB, the testing,or moveinto Stage2. The nextbudgetwouldsupport
membercontrolledcooperativesstructureincreasedvillager the testingand refinementof the programin additionalsites,
marketpower and access to sourcesof necessarytechnical refinementand routinizationof provenmethods,initial de-
assistance. Well developed internal control systems and velopmentof supportingmanagementsystems,and gradual
auditslimitedopportunitiesfor [Link] its communal expansionof core staff involvedwith the experimentalpro-
irrigationprogramthe NIA was emphasizingthe develop- [Link] move into Stage 3 a more detailedplan
ment of irrigationsystemsoperatedunderdirectcommunity and budgetwould be developedfor phasedprogramexpan-
controlas an alternativeto dependenceon the largergovern- sion, buildingon the capacitiesdevelopedduringStages 1
ment operatedsystems. and 2.
100. This is inherentin the idea that blueprintscan be generated 106. At least some of these funds are likely to be used for small
and testedby one organizationfor subsequentapplicationby local level projectsof the type identifiedby RobertCham-
another. Johnston and Clark suggest that ". . the notion of bers, "Project Selection," op. cit. It is neitherappropriate
pilot projectsas 'tests' of developmentpolicy 'hypotheses' nor necessary,however,that the funds going to the agency
retainsa flavorof inappropriate'physicsenvy' whenapplied carryingout these projectsbe projecttied or administeredin
in the developmentcontext.. ." On Designing Strategies, a projectmode.
op. cit. 107. In a properlyconceivedpoverty-focusedruraldevelopment
101. As an examplesee RushikeshMaru,"Organizationfor Rural program,the start-upcosts, to which developmentproject
Health:The IndianExperience,"in Kortenand Alfonso, op. fundingis normallyaddressed,are likely to be quite modest
cit. relativeto the maintenancecosts of a [Link]-
102. RobertChamberscalls ruralsurveys, deed, too much money, too early will kill the learningpro-
... one of the most inefficient industries in the world ... cess. The implicationsfor the basicstructureof development
and yet these huge operationspersist,often in the name of assistance funding-built around the exactly opposite re-
the science of evaluation, preemptingscarce national re- quirementsof large-scaleinfrastructuredevelopment-are
searchresources,and generatingmoundsof data and papers substantial.
whicharelikelyto be an embarrassment to all untilwhiteants This frameworkmight be useful to funding agencies in
or paper-shreddersclean thingsup. shaping their own roles consistent with their particular
strengthsand [Link] exampleworking with pro-
"ShortcutMethodsin InformationGatheringfor RuralDe- gramsthroughStages 1 and 2 shouldprobablybe limitedto
velopmentProjectss," paper for the World Bank Agricul- relativelysmaller donors with highly qualified field staff,
tural SectorSymposia,January1980. substantialprogrammingflexibility, and no qualms about
103. The ruralpoor usuallyare the least visible membersof the taking on high risk, staff-intensiveactivities. Taking pro-
[Link] little hope of programsassisting gramsthroughStage3 expansioninvolvessomewhatless risk
them unlessspecificstepsare takento makethemmorevisi- and requiresgreaterfundingthan Stages1 and 2. It mayalso
ble-i.e., determinewho and wherethey are, illuminatetheir be slightlyless staff intensive,but still requireshighlyquali-
survivalandadvancementstrategiesandtheirvulnerability to fied staff on the [Link] donorssuchas USAID
[Link] significanceof such informationis brought mightfind themselvesmost effectivehere. Whilenot impos-
out very effectively by Robert Chambers,RichardLong- sible for a donor such as USAID to be effectivein Stages 1
hurst, David Bradleyand RichardFeachem,"SeasonalDi- and 2 it wouldtakeveryspecialcommitmentto changingpro-
mensionsto RuralPoverty:Analysisand PracticalImplica- grammingproceduresand orientationsin ways consistent
tions," DiscussionPaper 142, Instituteof DevelopmentStu- with the requirementsof those stages.
diesat the Universityof Sussex,Brighton,England,February But even Stage 3 demandsa degreeof flexibilityand sus-
1979;and RobertChambers,"RuralHealthPlanning:Why tained on-the-groundstaff attentionto movementof com-
SeasonsMatter,"IDS WorkingPaper,Instituteof Develop- parativelysmallersums of money, whichthe largestdonors
mentStudies,Universityof Sussex,Brighton,England,June such as the WorldBank may find it particularlydifficult to
19, [Link] of the best examplesof the ef- [Link] lattermightmoreappropriatelyconcentrateon
fectivedevelopmentand use of suchinformationat the oper- pickingup the fundingof programswhich have moved be-
ating level. Gupta, op. cit. demonstratesthe use of people yond Stage 3 to [Link] such time the programshould
baseddiagnosisas the basisfor [Link] impor- have developedthe capacityto absorbsubstantialblocks of
tant demonstrationthat people based diagnosiscan serveas funding for well delineatedactivities. Moreover,since the
the guiding frameworkin macro-planningis found in the learningphase for the programin questionhas largelybeen
CountryDevelopmentStrategyStatementFY 1982:Philip- completedit is less likely that the amounts and forms in
pines, USAID Missionto the Republicof Philippines,Jan- whichassistanceare providedwill prematurelyinhibitessen-
uary 1980. This methodologyis discussedin more detail in tial [Link] the otherhand, it mightbe a useful experi-
Korten,"Social Development,"op. cit. See Young, op. cit. ence for the Bankto createa specialunit to specializein pro-
104. Suchindividualsmightbe found workingwithina largeres- gram developmentthroughthe earlierStages workingwith
tablishedorganization,or headinga smallvoluntaryagency. small amountsof funds, highly flexible programmingpro-
Fundingwould supportan initialplan of action intendedto cedures,and staff intensive,[Link] all

1980
SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER
COMMUNITY
ORGANIZATION
AND RURALDEVELOPMENT 511

donorsgreatersensitivityto implicationsof the learningpro-

cessmodelmighthelpavoiddoingharmto a promisingorga-
nizationby imposingon it types of assistanceand program-
ming methodologiesinappropriateto the stage of develop-
ment of the programbeing assisted.
GOVERNMENT VI/
108. Once an organizationhas achievedthe developmentof one
matureprogram,a significantdangeris that it maylauncha
BYAGENCY
Lessons from the Social Program Grants-in-Aid
second new programwithout sufficient recognitionof the Experience
role the learningprocessplayedin its originalprogramsuc-
cess. Indeed, the earliersuccessis likely to bringa rush of By WALTER WILLIAMS
donorsto the door eagerto sharein the gloryof an attractive Withthe Assistance of: BETTYJANENARVER
successby supportingnew programswithina provenorgani- A Volumein the QUANTITATIVE STUDIESIN SOCIAL
RELATIONS Series
zation, but bringingmoney tied to inappropriateblueprint
This book focuses on the efforts by federal social agen-
programmingmethodsand in quantitiestoo large to allow cies to manage the vast array of federally funded, but
for the bottom-uplearningprocessthroughwhichit may be locally operated, social service delivery programs that
necessaryfor each new programto [Link] a have emerged in the last 15 years. As social program
case in point. It was moving well throughthe learningse- grants-in-aid have grown in size and complexity, agency
quenceuntil it suddenlybranchedinto a varietyof new pro- management difficulties have so increased that we must
question whether the social agencies can be governed
grams with new requirementswhile simultaneouslyunder- effectively. This study attempts a partial answer to the
taking rapid expansion. At the time of this writing the question of the governance capability in federal social
BRAC,NDDB, andCBFPSwereall movingrapidlyinto new agencies. Governmentby Agency reports in detail on a
field study of federal efforts to implement the two key
programareaswith donor [Link] is not clearto me to New Federalism pieces of legislation-the Comprehen-
what extent the leadersof these organizationsfully appre- sive Employmentand TrainingAct (CETA)and the Com-
ciatedthe implicationsof thesenew undertakingsand the ex- munity Development Block Grant (CDBG) program. Both
tent to which they will requirenew learningand sometimes programs are followed from their inception in the Nixon
quite differenttypes of organizationalcompetence.I would administration through the early Carter administration
efforts to modify them. The study concentrates on the
hypothesizea highprobabilityof failureunlesseachnewpro- operation of federal regional offices because they are
gramis taken throughthe learningprocesssequence. envisioned as key links between agency headquartersand
grant recipients in the more decentralized world of the
New Federalism.
1980, 320 pp., $22.50 ISBN:0-12-755950-7
Futurevolumesin QUANTITATIVE STUDIESIN SOCIALRELA-
TIONSare now availableon a Continuation Orderbasis. Your
Continuation Orderauthorizesus to ship and bill each future
Now Availablein Paper volumein the series automatically,immediatelyupon publica-
tion. This orderwill remainin effect untilcancelled. Specify
the volumetitle withwhichyourorderis to begin.

Congress WELFAREOF THEPOOR

and the By MARYBRYNASANGER
CHAPTERHEADINGS:WELFARECASELOADDYNAM-
ICS. Caseload Variations: The Conceptual Issues and
Bureaucracy
A
MethodologicalTechniques. Variationswithin the Welfare
[Link]. [Link]-
tors Affecting Workand Welfare Patterns. FAMILYCOM-
Theory of Influence [Link] MaritalInstabil-
R. Douglas Arnold ity. The Effects of the WelfareSystem on [Link]
Effects of the WelfareSystem on [Link] Effects
"DouglasArnold'scarefully wrought study of the Welfare System on [Link]:Health Defi-
nitions. Nutrition:A Causal Factor. Utilizationof Health-
of relations between U.S. Representatives Care Services among the Poor. EDUCATION:Introduc-
and selected administrativeagencies is a tion. Socioeconomic Determinants. Inequality of School
Resources. Institutional Determinants. WELFARERE-
challenging, thought-provoking, SEARCH:POLITICAL AND METHODOLOGICAL LIMITA-
imaginative contribution that greatly TION. Impact of Different Paradigms on Understanding
enriches the field' -Herbert Kaufman Dependency. Cost of Knowledge. Policy Implicationsand
Future Research on Poverty. References.
Conclusions appear at the end of each chapter.
"Thebest book now available on the
1979, 192 pp., $15.00 ISBN:0-12-618650-2
decision-makingprocesses linking Send paymentwith order and save postage and handling
bureaucratsand congressmen." charge.
-Richard F. Fenno,Jr. Cloth $20.00 Prices are subject to change withoutnotice.
Paper$5.95
Yale University Press Academic Inc.
New Haven and London Press,
A Subsidiaryof HarcourtBrace Jovanovich, Publishers
L J 111 FIFTHAVENUE,NEWYORK,N.Y. 10003
24-28 OVALROAD,LONDONNW17DX

1980
SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER