DATABASE MANAGEMENT (Notes 1)

WHAT IS DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM??

 Database Management System (DBMS) is a Software that stores, organizes,

retrieves, and protects data.

Why is it important?

 Prevents data loss

 Ensures accuracy
 Speeds up data access
 Supports multiple users

Significance of DBMS in Data Management

 Manages huge amounts of data

 Secures confidential information
 Maintains data consistency
 Supports business operations
 Enables quick decision-making
➡ Everyday examples: hospitals, banks, schools, social media

Roles of a Database Administrator (DBA)

A DBA is responsible for:

 Installing & configuring the database

 Managing users & security
 Monitoring performance
 Backup & recovery
 Ensuring data availability
“Silent heroes working even at 2 AM.”

What Is a Database?

A database is:

 An organized collection of data

 Structured into tables
 Managed by a DBMS (like Oracle)
Examples:

 Student records
 Banking transactions
 Employee information

Types of Databases

1. Hierarchical – tree structure

2. Network – multiple connections
3. Relational (RDBMS) – tables & relationships (Oracle)
4. Object-Oriented – stores objects
5. NoSQL – for massive, unstructured data

Theoretical Aspects of a Database

• Data models (ERD, relational model)
• Rules and constraints
• Relationships (PK, FK)
• Table design
“Think of it as the blueprint.”
Physical Aspects of a Database
• Actual storage files
• Memory allocation
• Disk structures
• Indexes
• Backup files
1
 DATABASE MANAGEMENT (Notes 1)
“This is the real, behind-the-scenes machinery.”
Quick Review
• DBMS = manages data
• DBA = manages the DBMS
• Database = organized collection of data
• Types of databases = Hierarchical, Network, RDBMS, Object-Oriented,NoSQL
• Theoretical vs Physical = blueprint vs actual structure

RDBMS (Relational Database Management System)

 is a database system that stores data in tables — rows and columns — and connects those
tables using relationships (primary keys and foreign keys).
In simple terms:
RDBMS = organized tables + relationships + accuracy.

ORDBMS (Object-Relational Database Management System)

o is a database system that combines the structure of tables with the flexibility of object-
oriented features.
In simple terms:
ORDBMS = tables + objects + modern, flexible data handling.

Key Differences

THE DATA MODEL: BASIC BUILDING BLOCKS OF DATABASE

What is a Data Model?

• It is a visual representation or blueprint that organizes data elements and their relationships,
showing how data is stored, managed, and used.
• Blueprint of the database
Describes structure and connections
Guides database creation in Oracle

Fundamental Components

 Entities
- a thing, place, person or object that is independent of another.
-Things we store data about.

Examples:
• Student
• Teacher
• Course
• Product

Attributes

Definition: It is a characteristic or property of an entity, which is represented as a column in a

table.

2
 DATABASE MANAGEMENT (Notes 1)
- Characteristics of an entity
Examples:
• StudentID, Name, Grade
• ProductID, Price, Category

Relationships

Definition: is a logical connection between two or more tables in a relational database,

established through shared data like a primary key in one table and a foreign key in another.

- Connections between entities

Examples:
• Student enrolls in Course
• Teacher teaches Class

Functions of a Data Model

• Provides structure
• Brings clarity
• Aids communication among developers
• Guides database design process

Why Data Models Matter

• Reduce confusion
• Prevent design errors
• Foundation for Oracle database implementation

Summary

Entities = the nouns

Attributes = the details
Relationships = the connections
Data model = the blueprint

WHAT IS DATABASE DESIGN?

 Database Design is the process of planning, organizing, and structuring data before building a
database.
 Process of planning data organization
Importance of Database Design

 Easier data access

 Maintains data integrity
 Supports scalability
 Prevents chaos and inconsistency

Schema Design
 It is the blueprint for organizing data in a database, defining tables, fields, data types,
relationships (like primary/foreign keys), and constraints to ensure data integrity, efficiency, and
scalability for applications.
Schema = Database Blueprint

Includes:
• Tables
• Fields
• Data types
• Primary keys
• Relationships

What is table?
 A table is the basic structure of a database where data is stored in rows and columns.
3
 DATABASE MANAGEMENT (Notes 1)

What is field?
 A field is a single piece of information stored in a table.
It represents one attribute or characteristic of an entity in a database.
In simpler words:
“A field is a column in a table that holds a specific type of data.”

What are data types?

They define the nature of the data, such as:
• Numbers (like 123 or 45.67)
• Text (like names or addresses)
• Dates and times (like 2025-12-08 or 10:30 AM)
• Logical/Boolean values (like TRUE or FALSE)
• Binary data (like images or files)
Example:

📌 COMMON DATA TYPES & EXAMPLES

1. Number Types
 Stores numeric values (whole or decimal)
Examples:
• NUMBER(6) → 123456
• NUMBER(5,2) → 123.45
• INTEGER → 100
Use case: Student ID, Salary, GPA

2. Text / Character Types

• Stores letters, words, or strings
• Examples:
• CHAR(1) → 'M' or 'F'
• VARCHAR2(50) → “Andrea Santos”
• CLOB → Long text (like essays)
Use case: Student Name, Address, Email

3. Date & Time Types

• Stores dates, times, or both
• Examples:
• DATE → 2007-04-12
• TIMESTAMP → 2007-04-12 10:30:00
Use case: Birthdate, Enrollment Date
4
 DATABASE MANAGEMENT (Notes 1)

4. Boolean / Logical Types

• Stores TRUE/FALSE values
• Example:
• IsEnrolled = TRUE
• IsGraduated = FALSE
Use case: Student Active Status

5. Binary Types
• Stores files or binary objects
• Examples:
• BLOB → Images, PDF files, Videos
• RAW → Small binary data
Use case: Student photo, scanned IDs

WHAT IS A PRIMARY KEY?

 A Primary Key (PK) is a unique identifier for each record in a table.

 It makes sure no two rows are exactly the same.
 Every record must have a value in the primary key.
 No NULLs are allowed.

Think of a student ID number in school.

• Two students might have the same name.
• Two students might have the same birthdate.
• But no two students share the same StudentID.
That’s exactly what a primary key does in a database table.

 Primary Key = StudentID

 It uniquely identifies each student.

WHAT IS A RELATIONSHIP?

In a database, a relationship defines how two tables are connected.

• It shows how records in one table relate to records in another table.

• Relationships help the database organize, link, and retrieve data efficiently.
• Without relationships, tables are just lonely islands of information.
Think of it as friendships or connections in real life: some are one-to-one, some one-to-many, some
many-to-many.

TYPES OF RELATIONSHIPS

1. One-to-One (1:1)

• Each record in Table A relates to exactly one record in Table B.

• Rare in real life, but used for things like personal profiles.
Example: Table: Students → Table: StudentPassport

Each student has exactly one passport.

2. One-to-Many (1:N)

• Each record in Table A relates to many records in Table B.

• Most common type of relationship.

Example:

• Table: Teachers → Table: Courses

5
 DATABASE MANAGEMENT (Notes 1)
• One teacher can teach many courses.

3. Many-to-Many (M:N)

• Records in Table A relate to many records in Table B, and vice versa.

• Usually implemented with a junction table.
Example:

• Table: Students → Table: Courses via Enrollments

• One student can enroll in many courses.
• One course can have many students.

DATABASE NORMALIZATION

• Database normalization is the process of organizing the attributes of the database to reduce
or eliminate data redundancy (having the same data but at different places).
• Eliminating redundancy in tables
Normalization aims to:

• Eliminate redundancy
• Make data consistent and reliable
• Prevent weird, embarrassing errors called anomalies

Why do we need Normalization?

• The primary objective for normalizing the relations is to eliminate the below anomalies. Failure
to reduce anomalies results in data redundancy, which may threaten data integrity and cause
additional issues as the database increases. Normalization consists of a set of procedures that
assist you in developing an effective database structure.

Insertion Anomalies:

• Insertion anomalies occur when it is not possible to insert data into a database because the
required fields are missing or because the data is incomplete. For example, if a database
requires that every record has a primary key, but no value is provided for a particular record, it
cannot be inserted into the database.

Deletion anomalies:

• Deletion anomalies occur when deleting a record from a database and can result in the
unintentional loss of data. For example, if a database contains information about customers and
orders, deleting a customer record may also delete all the orders associated with that customer.

Updation anomalies:

• Updation anomalies occur when modifying data in a database and can result in inconsistencies
or errors. For example, if a database contains information about employees and their salaries,
updating an employee’s salary in one record but not in all related records could lead to incorrect
calculations and reporting.

NORMAL FORMS IN DBMS

1NF — First Normal Form

⭐ Rule Reminder:

A table is in 1NF if:

✔ No repeating groups
✔ No multivalued cells (isang value lang dapat bawat cell)
✔ Each record is unique

❌ NOT in 1NF

6
 DATABASE MANAGEMENT (Notes 1)

The ContactNumbers column contains two values in one cell.

Ayaw ng 1NF ng ganyang “siksikan sa isang cell.”

✅ In 1NF (Correct Version)

2NF — Second Normal Form

⭐ Rule Reminder:

A table is in 2NF if:

✔ No partial dependency — meaning no non-key attribute should depend on only part
of a composite primary key
Keyword: Composite key (two-column primary key)
❌ NOT in 2NF

👉 Primary Key: (StudentID, CourseID)

(Combined, they uniquely identify each row.)

Where’s the violation?

• StudentName depends ONLY on StudentID,

NOT on CourseID.
• That means StudentName is partially dependent on the composite key.
And 2NF hates partial dependency the way teachers hate last-minute submissions.

Split the table into two:

• StudentName depends on StudentID

• Enrollment only tracks the many-to-many relationship
• No partial dependency
•

3NF — Third Normal Form

⭐ Rule Reminder:
A table is in 3NF if:
✔ No transitive dependency
(non-key attribute must NOT depend on another non-key attribute)
In short:
Every non-key attribute must depend ONLY on the primary key — nothing else.
❌ NOT in 3NF (Problem Example)

7
 DATABASE MANAGEMENT (Notes 1)

Where’s the violation?

• StudentID → Section
• Section → Adviser
• Therefore: StudentID → Adviser (indirectly)
• This is a transitive dependency, which 3NF absolutely forbids.
✅ In 3NF (Correct Version)
Traditional File System Database System
Split the table into two:
Data processing is file-by-file. Data processing uses SQL and a
If a program needs information, DBMS.
it must open the entire file and The system retrieves only what you
search through it manually. need.

• Slow • Fast queries

• Repetitive • Optimized indexing
• Inefficient • No unnecessary scanning
Like reading the whole Like typing a name in the
Now: class list just to find one computer and instantly finding
absent student.
• Adviser depends directly on Section
• Section depends directly on StudentID
No attribute is depending on another non-key attribute in the same table

Example:

• Parang gusto mong malaman kung crush ka ng crush mo.

Pero hindi mo siya matanong nang direkta.

So ang nangyayari:
Ikaw → Tatanong kay Bestfriend → Siya ang magtatanong kay Crush → Siya ang magbibigay ng
sagot
👉 Ang sagot ay hindi galing direkta sa source — dumaan pa sa ibang tao.
That’s transitive dependency.

📚 FILE SYSTEM DATA PROCESSING

• File System Data Processing means using programs to manage, read, write, update,
and store data within individual files on a storage device, like a hard drive, organizing them in
directories (folders).

What is traditional file system?

• A traditional file system is the classic method of storing and managing data in a computer by
using separate, individual files, usually organized in folders.

What is database system?

• It is a structured way of storing, managing, and retrieving data using a Database

Management System (DBMS).

Contrast: Traditional File Systems vs. Database Systems (In Terms of Data Processing)

Imagine two schools:

•One uses old filing cabinets.

•The other uses a modern digital registry.
Both store data… but how they process that data? Worlds apart.

1. How Data Is Accessed

8
 DATABASE MANAGEMENT (Notes 1)

File System Database System

Backups and recovery depend on the A DBMS supports:

user.
If a file gets corrupted? • automatic backups
• crash recovery
Well… may the odds ever be in your • transaction rollback
favor. Mistakes can be reversed like a “Ctrl + Z”
for data.

2. How Data Is Updated

3. How Data
FileIsSystem
Shared Database System

Every program keeps its own data One update affects all related
files. components because data lives in a
So when you update information centralized database.
(e.g., student address), you must
update: • Update once
• Everywhere else stays
• enrollment file consistent
• grades file • No duplicates to chase
• attendance file
If you forget one, you breed
4. How Data Is Protected

File System Database System

Sharing is limited and risky. Multiple users can process data
If two users open the same file, simultaneously.
corruption can happen.
It’s like having two teachers • Controlled access
writing on the same attendance • Transaction management
• Locking mechanisms
sheet at the same time — chaos.
Everyone works together smoothly
without messing each other up.

5. How Data Errors Are Handled

File System Database System

Security is basic. Security is fine-grained.

You can lock or protect the whole
You can control:
file, but…
• which tables a user sees
• No control at field-level
• which rows they can view
• Anyone with access sees
• which columns they can edit
everything
Much tighter and safer.
Feature Imagine giving a student access
Traditional to
File Database System
the entire grade book just because
they need one score. 9
 DATABASE MANAGEMENT (Notes 1)
System

Data Access Manual scanning Fast SQL queries

Updates Many files updated Centralized updates

Sharing Limited, risky Multi-user support

Security Basic Detailed control

Recovery Weak Strong, automated

Processing Slow Optimized

Problems Associated with File Systems

1. Data Redundancy
Files love to copy themselves. The same data gets stored in multiple places, again and again, like
gossip that won’t die. Result? Wasted storage and mismatched information when one copy changes and
the others don’t.

2. Data Inconsistency
Because of redundancy, data starts telling different stories. Update a student’s address in one file but
not in another—suddenly, the system doesn’t know where the student lives. Awkward. And dangerous
for decision-making.

3. Difficulty in Accessing Data

Want a specific report? Too bad. File systems weren’t built for flexible questions. You often need a new
program just to retrieve data in a slightly different way. That’s not efficiency—that’s busywork.

4. Data Isolation
Data is scattered across different files and formats. Each file minds its own business. Putting
information together from multiple files feels like herding cats—possible, but exhausting.

5. Integrity Problems
Rules like “grades must be between 0 and 100” or “ID numbers must be unique” are hard to enforce. In
file systems, these rules live in application programs—if they exist at all. One forgotten rule, and chaos
slips in quietly.

6. Security Problems
File systems offer only basic security. Fine-grained control? Who can see what, edit what, or delete
what? Good luck. It’s either all or nothing—like giving everyone the same key to the house.

7. Atomicity Problems
When something goes wrong mid-operation—power failure, system crash—file systems can leave data
half-written. The transaction is neither fully done nor fully undone. That’s not philosophy; that’s a
problem.

8. Concurrent Access Anomalies

Two users updating the same file at the same time? One overwrites the other, and nobody knows
whose data survived. Collaboration turns into a silent duel.

9. Poor Backup and Recovery

Backups are often manual and inconsistent. Recovery is slow and uncertain. When disaster strikes, file
systems don’t exactly rise like a phoenix—they limp back, if at all.

10
 DATABASE MANAGEMENT (Notes 1)
The Bottom Line

File systems worked when data was small, users were few, and questions were simple. But today’s
world demands precision, speed, and reliability. This is why Database Management Systems
(DBMS) exist—to fix what file systems simply can’t.

11