Ions & Ionic Bonds

The Formation of Ions

Ionic Bonding

 An ion is an electrically charged atom or group of atoms formed by

the loss or gain of electrons
 An atom will lose or gain electrons to become more stable
 The loss or gain of electrons takes place to gain a full outer shell of electrons
which is a more stable arrangement of electrons
 The electronic configuration of an ion will be the same as that of a noble gas –
such as helium, neon and argon

Formation of positively charged sodium ion

 Formation of negatively charged chloride ion

Ionisation of metals and non-metals

 Metals: all metals can lose electrons to other atoms to become positively
charged ions, known as cations
 Non-metals: all non-metals can gain electrons from other atoms to become
negatively charged ions, known as anions

What is Ionic Bonding?

Ionic Bonding Definition

 Ionic compounds are formed when metal atoms react with non-metal atoms
 Metal atoms lose their outer electrons which the non-metal atoms gain to form
positive and negative ions
 The positive and negative ions are held together by strong electrostatic forces
of attraction between opposite charges
 This force of attraction is known as an ionic bond and they hold ionic compounds
together
Ionic Bonding Examples
Dot-and-cross diagrams

 Dot and cross diagrams are diagrams that show the arrangement of the outer-shell
electrons in an ionic or covalent compound or element
o The electrons are shown as dots and crosses
 In a dot and cross diagram:
o Only the outer electrons are shown
o The charge of the ion is spread evenly which is shown by using
brackets
o The charge on each ion is written at the top right-hand corner

Ionic Bonds between Group I & Group VII Elements

Example: Sodium Chloride, NaCl
 Ionic Bonding Diagram

Sodium chloride ionic bonding

Explanation

 Sodium is a Group I metal so will lose one outer electron to another atom to
gain a full outer shell of electrons
  A positive sodium ion with the charge 1+ is formed
 Chlorine is a Group VII non-metal so will need to gain an electron to have a
full outer shell of electrons
 One electron will be transferred from the outer shell of the sodium atom to the
outer shell of the chlorine atom
 A chlorine atom will gain an electron to form a negatively charged chloride ion
with a charge of 1-
 The oppositely charged ions are held together by strong electrostatic forces of
attraction
 The ionic compound has no overall charge

Formula of ionic compound: NaCl

Ionic Bonds & Lattice Structure

The Lattice Structure of Ionic Compounds
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Lattice structure

 Ionic compounds have a giant lattice structure

 Lattice structure refers to the arrangement of the atoms of a substance in 3D space
 In lattice structures, the atoms are arranged in an ordered and repeating fashion
 The lattices formed by ionic compounds consist of
a regular arrangement of alternating positive and negative ions

Ionic Bonds between Metallic & Non-Metallic Elements

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Ionic compounds

 Ionic compounds are formed when metal atoms and non-metal atoms react
 The ionic compound has no overall charge

Example: Magnesium Oxide, MgO

 Diagram showing the dot-and-cross diagram of magnesium oxide

Explanation

 Magnesium is a Group II metal so will lose two outer electrons to another

atom to have a full outer shell of electrons
 A positive ion with the charge 2+ is formed
 Oxygen is a Group VI non-metal so will need to gain two electrons to have a
full outer shell of electrons
 Two electrons will be transferred from the outer shell of the magnesium atom
to the outer shell of the oxygen atom
 Oxygen atom will gain two electrons to form a negative ion with charge 2-
 Magnesium oxide has no overall charge

Formula of ionic compound: MgO

Properties of Ionic Compounds

Properties of Ionic Compounds

 Ionic compounds are usually solid at room temperature

 They have high melting and boiling points
 Ionic compounds are good conductors of electricity in the molten state or
in solution
 They are poor conductors in the solid state

Explaining the Properties of Ionic Compounds

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 Ionic substances have high melting and boiling points due to the presence
of strong electrostatic forces acting between the oppositely charged ions
 These forces act in all directions and a lot of energy is required to overcome them
  The greater the charge on the ions, the stronger the electrostatic forces and the
higher the melting point will be
o For example, magnesium oxide consists of Mg2+ and O2- so will have a higher
melting point than sodium chloride which contains the ions, Na+ and Cl-

 For electrical current to flow there must be freely moving charged particles such as
electrons or ions present
 Ionic compounds are good conductors of electricity in the molten state or
in solution as they have ions that can move and carry a charge
 They are poor conductors in the solid state as the ions are in fixed positions within
the lattice and are unable to move

Covalent Bonds
The Formation of Covalent Bonds
Covalent compounds

 Covalent compounds are formed when pairs of electrons are shared between atoms
 Only non-metal elements participate in covalent bonding
 As in ionic bonding, each atom gains a full outer shell of electrons, giving them a
noble gas electronic configuration
 When two or more atoms are covalently bonded together, we describe them as
‘molecules’
 Dot-and-cross diagrams can be used to show the electric configurations in simple
molecules
 Electrons from one atom are represented by a dot, and the electrons of the other
atom are represented by a cross
 The electron shells of each atom in the molecule overlap and the shared electrons
are shown in the area of overlap
 The dot-and-cross diagram of the molecule shows clearly which atom each electron
originated from
 Single Covalent Bonds

 Many simple molecules exist in which two adjacent atoms share one pair of
electrons, also known as a single covalent bond (or single bond)

Common Examples of Simple Molecules

Hydrogen:
Molecules & Compounds
Covalent Bonds in Complex Covalent Molecules
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 Some atoms need to share more than one pair of electrons to gain a full outer shell
of electrons
 If two adjacent atoms share two pairs of electrons, two covalent bonds are formed,
also known as a double bond
 If two adjacent atoms share three pairs of electrons, three covalent bonds are
formed, also known as a triple bond

Nitrogen:

 When 2 nitrogen atoms react they share 3 pairs of electrons to form a triple bond
Ethene:

 In ethene, the 2 carbon atoms share 2 pairs of electrons

 This is known as a double bond
Properties of Simple Molecular
Compounds
Properties of Simple Molecular Compounds

 Small molecules are compounds made up of molecules that contain just a few
atoms covalently bonded together
 They have low melting and boiling points so covalent compounds are
usually liquids or gases at room temperature
 As the molecules increase in size, the melting and boiling points generally increase
 Small molecules have poor electrical conductivity

Explaining the Properties of Simple Molecular Compounds

EXTENDED

 Small molecules have covalent bonds joining the atoms together, but intermolecular forces
that act between neighbouring molecules
 They have low melting and boiling points as there are only weak intermolecular forces
acting between the molecules
  These forces are very weak when compared to the covalent bonds and so most small
molecules are either gases or liquids at room temperature
 As the molecules increase in size the intermolecular forces also increase as there are more
electrons available
 This causes the melting and boiling points to increase

Electrical Conductivity
Molecular compounds are poor conductors of electricity as there are no free ions or
electrons to carry the charge.

 Most covalent compounds do not conduct at all in the solid state and are
thus insulators
 Common insulators include the plastic coating around household electrical wiring,
rubber and wood

Diamond & Graphite

Structure of Graphite & Diamond

 Diamond and graphite are allotropes of carbon which

have giant covalent structures
 Both substances contain only carbon atoms but due to the differences in bonding
arrangements they are physically completely different
 Giant covalent structures contain billions of non-metal atoms, each joined to adjacent
atoms by covalent bonds forming a giant lattice structure

Diamond

 In diamond, each carbon atom bonds with four other carbons, forming a tetrahedron
 All the covalent bonds are identical, very strong and there are no intermolecular
forces
Graphite

 Each carbon atom in graphite is bonded to three others forming layers of hexagons,
leaving one free electron per carbon atom which becomes delocalised
 The covalent bonds within the layers are very strong, but the layers are attracted to
each other by weak intermolecular forces
 Uses of Graphite & Diamond
Properties of Diamond

 Diamond has the following physical properties:

o It does not conduct electricity
o It has a very high melting point
o It is extremely hard and dense
 All the outer shell electrons in carbon are held in the four covalent bonds around
each carbon atom, so there are no freely moving charged particles to carry the
current thus it cannot conduct electricity
 The four covalent bonds are very strong and extend in a giant lattice, so a very large
amount of heat energy is needed to break the lattice thus it has a very high melting
point
 Diamond ś hardness makes it very useful for purposes where extremely tough
material is required
 Diamond is used in jewellery due to its sparkly appearance and
as cutting tools as it is such a hard material
 The cutting edges of discs used to cut bricks and concrete are tipped with diamonds
 Heavy-duty drill bits and tooling equipment are also diamond-tipped

Properties of Graphite

 Each carbon atom is bonded to three others forming layers of hexagonal-shaped

forms, leaving one free electron per carbon atom
  These free (delocalised) electrons exist in between the layers and are free to move
through the structure and carry charge, hence graphite can conduct electricity
 The covalent bonds within the layers are very strong but the layers are connected to
each other by weak forces only, hence the layers can slide over each other making
graphite slippery and smooth
 Graphite thus:
o Conducts electricity
o Has a very high melting point
o Is soft and slippery, less dense than diamond
 Graphite is used in pencils and as an industrial lubricant, in engines and in locks
 It is also used to make non-reactive electrodes for electrolysis

Silicon(IV) Oxide
Structure of Silicon(IV) Oxide
Silicon Dioxide Structure
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 Silicon(IV) oxide (also known as silicon dioxide or silica), SiO2, is a macromolecular

compound which occurs naturally as sand and quartz
 Each oxygen atom forms covalent bonds with 2 silicon atoms and each silicon atom
in turn forms covalent bonds with 4 oxygen atoms
 A tetrahedron is formed with one silicon atom and four oxygen atoms, similar to
diamond
 Comparing Diamond & Silicon(IV) Oxide
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 SiO2 has lots of very strong covalent bonds and no intermolecular forces so it has
similar properties to diamond
 It is very hard, has a very high boiling point, is insoluble in water and does not
conduct electricity
 SiO2 is cheap since it is available naturally and is used to make sandpaper and to
line the inside of furnaces

Metallic Bonding
Metallic Bonding
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 Metal atoms are held together strongly by metallic bonding in a giant metallic lattice
 Within the metallic lattice, the atoms lose the electrons from their outer shell and
become positively charged ions
 The outer electrons no longer belong to a particular metal atom and are said to
be delocalised
 They move freely between the positive metal ions like a 'sea of electrons'
 Metallic bonds are strong and are a result of the attraction between the positive metal
ions and the negatively charged delocalised electrons
 Properties of Metals
EXTENDED

 Metals have high melting and boiling points

o There are many strong metallic bonds in giant metallic structures between
the positive metal ion and delocalised electrons
o A lot of heat energy is needed to break these bonds

 Metals conduct electricity

o There are free electrons available to move through the structure and carry
charge
o Electrons entering one end of the metal cause a delocalised electron to
displace itself from the other end
o Hence electrons can flow so electricity is conducted

 Metals are malleable and ductile

o Layers of positive ions can slide over one another and take up different
positions
o Metallic bonding is not disrupted as the outer electrons do not belong to any
particular metal atom so the delocalised electrons will move with them
o Metallic bonds are thus not broken and as a result metals are strong
but flexible
o They can be hammered and bent into different shapes or drawn into wires
without breaking

STOICHIOMETRY
Formulae
Molecular Formulae
Element symbols

 Each element is represented by its own unique symbol as seen on the Periodic Table
o E.g. H is hydrogen
 Where a symbol contains two letters, the first one is always in capital letters and the
other is small
o E.g. sodium is Na, not NA
 Atoms combine together in fixed ratios that will give them full outer shells of
electrons
 The chemical formula tells you the ratio of atoms
o E.g. H2O is a compound containing 2 hydrogen atoms which combine with 1
oxygen atom
 The chemical formula can be deduced from the relative number of atoms present
o E.g. If a molecule contains 3 atoms of hydrogen and 1 atom of nitrogen then
the formula would be NH3
 Diagrams or models can also be used to represent the chemical
formula
  The ammonia molecule consists of a central nitrogen atom bonded to
three hydrogen atoms

Chemical formulae

 The structural formula tells you the way in which the atoms in a particular molecule
are bonded
o This can be done by either a diagram (displayed formula)
or written (simplified structural formula)
 The molecular formula tells you the actual number of atoms of each element in one
molecule of the compound or element
o E.g. H2 has 2 hydrogen atoms, HCl has 1 hydrogen atom and 1 chlorine atom

Example: Butane

 Structural formula (displayed)

  Structural formula (simplified)

CH3CH2CH2CH3

 Molecular formula

C4H10

 Empirical formula

C2H5

Deducing formulae by Combining power(valency)

 The concept of valency is used to deduce the formulae of compounds (either

molecular compounds or ionic compounds)
 Valency or combining power tells you how many bonds an atom can make
with another atom or how many electrons its atoms lose, gain or share, to
form a compound
o E.g. carbon is in Group IV so a single carbon atom can make 4 single
bonds or 2 double bonds
 The following valencies apply to elements in each group:
Empirical Formulae &
Formulae of Ionic Compounds
Empirical Formulae
EXTENDED
The molecular formula is the formula that shows the number and type of each
atom in a molecule

 E.g. the molecular formula of ethanoic acid is C2H4O2

 The empirical formula is the simplest whole number ratio of the atoms of each
element present in one molecule or formula unit of the compound
o E.g. the empirical formula of ethanoic acid is CH2O
 Organic molecules, such as ethanoic acid, often have different empirical and
molecular formulae
 The formula of an ionic compound is always an empirical formula

Deducing Formulae of Ionic Compounds

EXTENDED

 The formulae of these compounds can be calculated if you know the charge on the
ions
 The Periodic Table can help work out the charge on many elements:
o Group I elements form ions with a 1+ charge
o Group II elements form ions with a 2+ charge
o Group III elements form ions with a 3+ charge
o Group V elements form ions with a 3- charge
o Group VI elements form ions with a 2- charge
o Group VII elements form ions with a 1- charge
 Below are some other common ions and their charges
 Note that a Roman numeral next to the element tells you the charge on the ion, e.g.
copper(II) ions have a charge 2+
 There are several common compound ions included in the table
o Some chemists call these polyatomic ions
  The overall sum of the charges of an ionic compound should be 0
 You therefore need to work out the ratio of the ions to ensure this is the case
 When you write the formula of a compound ion it is necessary to use brackets
around the compound ion where more than one of that ion is needed in the
formula
o For example copper(II) hydroxide is Cu(OH)2

Worked example
What is the formula of?

1. sodium bromide
2. aluminium fluoride
3. aluminium oxide
4. magnesium nitrate
5. ammonium sulfate
6. Answer 1
Symbol Na Br
Ion charge 1+ 1-
Balance the number of ions 1 sodium ion is needed for each bromide ion
Ratio of ions 1:1
Formula NaBr
7. Answer 2

Symbol Al F
Ion charge 3+ 1-
Balance the number of ions 3 fluoride ions are needed for each aluminium ion
Ratio of ions 1:3
Formula AlF3
8. Answer 3

Symbol Al O
Ion charge 3+ 2-
Balance the number of ions 2 aluminium ions are needed for 3 oxide ions
Ratio of ions 2:3
Formula Al2O3
9. Answer 4
Symbol Mg2+ NO3-
Ion charge 2+ 1-
Balance the number of ions 2 nitrate ions are needed for each magnesium ion
Ratio of ions 1:2
Formula Mg(NO3)2
10. Answer 5

Symbol NH4+ SO42-

Ion charge 1+ 2-
Balance the number of ions 2 ammonium ions are needed for each sulfate ion
Ratio of ions 2:1
Formula (NH4)2SO4
Writing Equations
Writing Word Equations & Symbol Equations
Word equations

 These show the reactants and products of a chemical reaction using their full
chemical names
 The arrow (which is spoken as “goes to” or “produces”) implies the conversion of
reactants into products
 Reaction conditions or the name of a catalyst can be written above the arrow
 An example of a word equation for neutralisation is:

sodium hydroxide + hydrochloric acid → sodium chloride + water

 The reactants are sodium hydroxide and hydrochloric acid

 The products are sodium chloride and water

Names of compounds

 For compounds consisting of 2 atoms:

o If one is a metal and the other a non-metal, then the name of the metal atom
comes first and the ending of the second atom is replaced by adding -ide
 E.g. NaCl which contains sodium and chlorine thus becomes sodium
chloride
o If both atoms are non-metals and one of those is hydrogen, then hydrogen
comes first
 E.g. Hydrogen and chlorine combined is called hydrogen chloride
 For other combinations of non-metals as a general rule, the element that has a lower
group number comes first in the name
o E.g. carbon and oxygen combine to form CO2 which is carbon dioxide since
carbon is in Group 4 and oxygen in Group 6
 For compounds that contain certain groups of atoms:

o There are common groups of atoms which occur regularly in chemistry

 Examples include the carbonate ion (CO32-), sulfate ion (SO42-),
hydroxide ion (OH-) and the nitrate ion (NO3-)
o When these ions form a compound with a metal atom, the name of
the metal comes first
 E.g. KOH is potassium hydroxide, CaCO3 is calcium carbonate

Writing and balancing chemical equations

 Chemical equations use the chemical symbols of each reactant and product
 When balancing equations, there needs to be the same number of atoms of each
element on either side of the equation
 The following non-metals must be written as diatomic molecules (i.e. molecules that
contain two atoms): H2, N2, O2, F2, Cl2, Br2 and I2
 Work across the equation from left to right, checking one element after another
  If there is a group of atoms, for example a nitrate group (NO3-) that has not changed
from one side to the other, then count the whole group as one entity rather than
counting the individual atoms.
o Examples of chemical equations:
 Acid-base neutralisation reaction:
NaOH (aq) + HCl (aq) ⟶ NaCl (aq) + H2O (l)
 Redox reaction:
2Fe2O3 (s) + 3C (s) ⟶ 4Fe (s) + 3CO2 (g)
 In each equation there are equal numbers of each atom on either side
of the reaction arrow so the equations are balanced

 The best approach is to practice lot of examples of balancing equations

 By trial and error change the coefficients (multipliers) in front of the formulae, one by
one checking the result on the other side
 Balance elements that appear on their own, last in the process

Worked example
Example 1

Balance the following equation:

aluminium + copper(II)oxide ⟶ aluminium oxide + copper

Unbalanced symbol equation:

Al + CuO ⟶ Al2O3 + Cu
Worked example
Example 2:

Balance the following equation:

magnesium oxide + nitric acid ⟶ magnesium nitrate + water

Unbalanced symbol equation:

MgO + HNO3 ⟶ Mg(NO3)2 + H2O

State symbols

 State symbols are written after each formula in chemical equations to show which
physical state each substance is in
 Brackets are used and they are not usually subscripted although you may come
across them written in this way
 Aqueous should remind you of the word 'aqua' and means the substance
is dissolved in water
o In other words it is a solution

The four state symbols show the physical state of substances at normal
conditions

 Symbol equations should be included when writing chemical equations.

  An example of a reaction with state symbols is the reaction of copper
carbonate with hydrochloric acid:

CuCO3 (s) + 2HCl (aq) ⟶ CuCl2 (aq) + CO2 (g) + H2O (l)

 Sometimes it can be hard to know what the correct state symbol is and we
have to look for clues in the identity of substances in a reaction
 Generally, unless they are in a solution:
o Metal compounds will always be solid, although there are a
few exceptions
o Ionic compounds will usually be solids
 Non-metal compounds could be solids, liquids or gases, so it depends on
chemical structure
 Precipitates formed in solution count as solids
 In the worked examples above the final equations with the state symbols
would be
o 2Al (s) + 3CuO (s) ⟶ Al2O3 (s) + 3Cu (s)
o MgO (s) + 2HNO3 (aq) ⟶ Mg(NO3)2 (aq) + H2O (l)

Deducing Symbol Equations

EXTENDED

 For some reactions, you will not be given the unbalanced equation but you will be
expected to use your knowledge learnt throughout the course to know or deduce the
formula of compounds and then balance the equations

Ar & Mr
Relative Masses
Relative Atomic Mass

 The symbol for the relative atomic mass is Ar

 The relative atomic mass for each element can be found in the Periodic Table along with the
atomic number
 The relative atomic mass is shown underneath the atomic symbol and is larger than the
atomic number (except for hydrogen where they are the same)
 Atoms are too small to accurately weigh but scientists needed a way to compare the masses
of atoms
 The carbon-12 is used as the standard atom and has a fixed mass of 12 units
 It is against this atom which the masses of all other atoms are compared
 Relative atomic mass (Ar) can therefore be defined as:
o The average mass of the isotopes of an element compared to 1/12th of the mass of
an atom of 12C
 The relative atomic mass of carbon is 12
o The relative atomic mass of magnesium is 24 which means that magnesium is twice
as heavy as carbon
o The relative atomic mass of hydrogen is 1 which means it has one twelfth the mass
of one carbon-12 atom
Relative molecular (formula) mass

 The symbol for the relative molecular mass is Mr and it refers to the total mass of the
molecule
 To calculate the Mr of a substance, you have to add up the relative atomic masses of
all the atoms present in the formula
 Relative formula mass is used when referring to the total mass of an ionic compound

Reacting masses

 The Law of Conservation of mass tells us that mass cannot be created or destroyed
 In a chemical reaction, the total mass of reactants equals the total mass of the
products
 We can use this, along with relative atomic/formula masses to perform calculations to
identify the quantities of reactants or products involved in a chemical reaction

 Example:

2Ca + O2 → 2CaO

 Relative atomic masses: Ca = 40; O = 16

 Using the balanced symbol equation shows that 2 x 40 = 80 units of mass of calcium
react with 2 x 16 = 32 units of mass of oxygen (O2 molecule, 16 + 16 = 32) to form 2
x (40 + 16) = 112 units of mass of CaO:

2Ca + O2 → 2CaO

80 + 32 = 112

 The ratio of the mass of calcium and oxygen reacting will always be the same,
regardless of the units
o E.g. 80 g of calcium will react with 32 g of oxygen to form 112 g of calcium
oxide
 o Or, 40 tonnes of calcium will react in excess oxygen to form 56 tonnes of
calcium oxide

The Mole & the Avogadro Constan

EXTENDED
The Mole & Avogadro's Constant

 Chemical amounts are measured in moles

 The mole, symbol mol, is the SI unit of amount of substance

 One mole of a substance contains the same number of the stated particles, atoms,
molecules, or ions as one mole of any other substance

 One mole contains 6.02 x 1023 particles (e.g. atoms, ions, molecules); this number is
known as the Avogadro Constant

 For example:

o
 One mole of sodium (Na) contains 6.02 x 1023 atoms of sodium

 One mole of hydrogen (H2) contains 6.02 x 1023 molecules of hydrogen

 One mole of sodium chloride (NaCl) contains 6.02 x 1023 formula units
of sodium chloride

 The mass of 1 mole of a substance is known as the molar mass

 For an element, it is the same as the relative atomic mass written in grams
 For a compound it is the same as the relative formula mass or relative molecular
mass in grams

The Mole & Volume of Gas

EXTENDED

 Avogadro’s Law states that at the same conditions of temperature and pressure,
equal amounts of gases occupy the same volume of space
 At room temperature and pressure, the volume occupied by one mole of any gas was
found to be 24 dm3 or 24,000 cm3
 This is known as the molar gas volume at RTP
 RTP stands for “room temperature and pressure” and the conditions are 20 ºC and 1
atmosphere (atm)
 From the molar gas volume the following formula triangle can be derived:
 Formula triangle showing the relationship between moles of gas, volume in
dm3 and the molar volume

 If the volume is given in cm3 instead of dm3, then divide by 24,000 instead of
24:

Formula triangle showing the relationship between moles of gas, volume in

cm3 and the molar volume

 The formula can be used to calculate the number of moles of gases from a given
volume or vice versa
 Simply cover the one you want and the triangle tells you what to do

To find the volume of a gas

Volume = Moles x Molar Volume

Examples of Converting Moles into Volumes Table

To find the moles of a gas
Moles = Volume ÷ Molar Volume

Examples of Converting Volumes into Moles Table

Linking Moles, Mass & Mr

Linking Moles, Mass & Mr
Calculating Moles
EXTENDED

 Although elements and chemicals react with each other in molar ratios, in the
laboratory we use digital balances and grams to measure quantities of chemicals as
it is impractical to try and measure out moles
 Therefore we have to be able to convert between moles and grams
 We can use the following formula to convert between moles, mass in grams and the
molar mass
 The mass of 1 mole of a substance is known as the molar mass
 For an element, it is the same as the relative atomic mass written in grams
 For a compound it is the same as the relative formula mass or relative molecular
mass in grams
Reacting Masses
Reacting Masses
EXTENDED

 Chemical equations can be used to calculate the moles or masses of reactants and
products
 To do this, information given in the question is used to find the amount in moles of
the substances being considered
 Then, the ratio between the substances is identified using the balanced chemical
equation
 Once the moles have been determined they can then be converted into grams using
the relative atomic or relative formula masses

Worked example
Example 1

Calculate the mass of magnesium oxide that can be made by completely burning 6.0
g of magnesium in oxygen in the following reaction:

2Mg (s) + O2 (g) ⟶ 2 MgO (s)

Relative formula masses (Mr): Mg = 24; MgO = 40

Worked example
Example 2

Calculate the mass of aluminium, in tonnes, that can be produced from 51 tonnes of
aluminium oxide. The equation for the reaction is:

2Al2O3 ⟶ 4Al + 3O2

Relative formula masses (Mr): Al = 27; Al2O3 = 102

Limiting Reactants

 A chemical reaction stops when one of the reactants is used up

 The reactant that is used up first is the limiting reactant, as it limits the duration and
hence the amount of product that a reaction can produce
 The amount of product is therefore directly proportional to the amount of the
limiting reactant added at the beginning of a reaction
 The limiting reactant is the reactant which is not present in excess in a reaction
 In order to determine which reactant is the limiting reactant in a reaction, we have to
consider the ratios of each reactant in the balanced equation
 When performing reacting mass calculations, the limiting reactant is always the
number that should be used as it indicates the maximum possible amount of product
 The steps are:
1. Write the balanced equation for the reaction
2. Calculate the moles of each reactant
3. Compare the moles & deduce the limiting reactant

Worked example
9.2 g of sodium is reacted with 8.0 g of sulfur to produce sodium sulfide, Na2S.

Which reactant is in excess and which is the limiting reactant?

Relative atomic masses (Ar): Na = 23; S = 32

Answer:

Step 1: Write the balanced equation and determine the molar ratio
 2Na + S → Na2S so the molar ratio of Na : S is 2 : 1

Step 2: Calculate the moles of each reactant

Moles = Mass ÷ Molar Mass

Moles Na = 9.2 ÷ 23 = 0.40

Moles S = 8.0 ÷ 32 = 0.25

Step 3: Compare the moles


o
 To react completely 0.40 moles of Na requires 0.20 moles of S
and since there are 0.25 moles of S, then S is in excess
 Na is therefore the limiting reactant

Calculating Concentration
Units of Concentration

 A solid substance that dissolves in a liquid is called a solute, the liquid is called a
solvent and the two when mixed together form a solution
 Most chemical reactions occur between solutes which are dissolved in solvents, such
as water or an organic solvent
 Concentration simply refers to the amount of solute there is in a specific volume of
the solvent
 The greater the amount of solute in a given volume, the greater the concentration
 The amount of solute can be expressed in grams or moles
 Typically, concentration is expressed in terms of the amount of substance per dm3,
therefore the units of concentration are either: g/dm3 or mol/dm3

Calculating Concentration
EXTENDED

 Concentration refers to the amount of solute there is in a specific volume of the

solvent
 A general formula to calculate the concentration in g/dm3 is:

 Concentration can be measured in grams per cubic decimetre

 1 decimetre cubed (dm3) = 1000 cm3
o 1 decimetre cubed (dm3) is the same as 1 litre
 You may be given data in a question which needs to be converted from cm3 to dm3 or
the other way around
o To go from cm3 to dm3 :
 Divide by 1000
 
o To go from dm3 to cm3 :
 Multiply by 1000

Worked example
A student dissolved 10 g of sodium hydroxide, NaOH, in 2 dm3 of distilled water.
Calculate the concentration of the solution in g/dm3

Calculating Concentration using Moles

 It is more useful to a chemist to express concentration in terms of moles per unit

volume rather than mass per unit volume
 Concentration can therefore be expressed in moles per decimetre cubed and
calculated using the following equation:

 We can modify the concentration formula to include moles

o The units in the answer can be written as mol/dm 3 (this can also be
written as mol dm-3)
 You may have to convert from g/dm3 into mol/dm3 and vice versa depending
on the question


o To go from g/dm3 to mol/dm3
 Divide by the molar mass in grams
o To go from mol/dm3 to g/dm3
 Multiply by the molar mass in grams

 Some students find formula triangles help them to understand the

relationship:
Worked example
Example 1

Calculate the amount of solute, in moles, present in 2.5 dm3 of a solution whose
concentration is 0.2 mol/dm3.

Worked example
Example 2

Calculate the concentration of a solution of sodium hydroxide, NaOH, in mol/dm3,

when 80 g is dissolved in 500 cm3 of water.

Relative atomic masses, Ar: Na= 23; H= 1; O= 16

Titration Calculations
Titration Calculations
Extended

 Titrations are a method of analysing the concentration of solutions

 Acid-base titrations are one of the most important kinds of titrations
 They can determine exactly how much alkali is needed to neutralise a quantity of
acid – and vice versa
 You may be asked to calculate the moles present in a given amount,
the concentration or volume required to neutralise an acid or a base
 Once a titration is completed and the average titre has been calculated, you can now
proceed to calculate the unknown variable using the formula triangle as shown below
Worked example
A solution of 25.0 cm3 of hydrochloric acid was titrated against a solution of 0.100
mol/dm3 NaOH and 12.1 cm3 were required for complete reaction. Determine the
concentration of the acid.
Answer:

Step 1: Write the equation for the reaction:

HCl (aq) + NaOH (aq) → NaCl (aq) + H2O (l)

Step 2: Calculate the number of moles of the NaOH

Moles = (volume ÷ 1000) x concentration

Moles of NaOH = 0.012 dm3 x 0.100 mol/dm3 = 1.21 x 10-3 mol

Step 3: Deduce the number of moles of the acid

Since the acid reacts in a 1:1 ratio with the alkali, the number of moles of HCl is also
1.21 x 10-3 mol

This is present in 25.0 cm3 of the solution (25.0 cm3 = 0.025 dm3)

Step 4: Find the concentration of the acid

Concentration = moles ÷ volume (dm3)

Concentration of HCl =1.21 x 10-3 mol ÷ 0.025 dm3 = 0.0484 mol/dm3

 Empirical & Molecular Formula
Calculating Empirical & Molecular Formulae
EXTENDED
Calculating Empirical Formula

 The empirical formula is the simplest whole number ratio of the atoms of each
element present in one molecule or formula unit of the compound
o E.g. the empirical formula of ethanoic acid is CH2O
 Organic molecules often have different empirical and molecular formulae
 The formula of an ionic compound is always an empirical formula

Worked example
A compound that contains 10 g of hydrogen and 80 g of oxygen.

What is its empirical formula of this compound?

Answer:

hydrogen oxygen
Write the mass of each element 10 g 80 g
Divide each mass by the relative atomic
10/1 = 10 80/16 = 5
mass to find the number of moles
Find the molar ratio by dividing by the
10/5 = 2 5/5 = 1
smallest number
Empirical formula = H2O

Worked example
Substance X was analysed and found to contain 31.58% carbon, 5.26% hydrogen
and 63.16% oxygen by mass.

What is the empirical formula of substance X?

Relative atomic masses, Ar: C = 12; H = 1; O = 16

Answer:

carbon hydrogen oxygen

Convert % to g by assuming 100 g of
31.58 g 5.26 g 63.16 g
substance is present
Divide each mass by the relative atomic 63.16/16 =
31.58/12 = 2.63 5.26/1 = 5.26
mass to find the number of moles in 100 g 3.95
Find the molar ratio by dividing by the 3.95/2.63 =
2.63/2.63 = 1 5.26/2.63 = 2
smallest number 1.5
Multiply all by 2 to obtain a whole number ratio 2 4 3
Empirical formula = C2H4O3
Calculating Molecular Formula

 Molecular formula gives the actual numbers of atoms of each element present in
the formula of the compound
 To calculate the molecular formula:
o Step 1: Find the relative formula mass of the empirical formula
o Step 2: Use the following equation:


o Step 3: Multiply the number of each element present in the empirical
formula by the number from step 2 to find the molecular formula

Table showing the Relationship between Empirical and Molecular Formula

Percentage Yield & Purity

Calculating Percentage Yield, Percentage by Mass & Percentage Purity
EXTENDED
Percentage Yield

 Yield is the term used to describe the amount of product you get from a reaction
 In practice, you never get 100% yield in a chemical process for several reasons
 These include:
o Some reactants may be left behind in the equipment
o The reaction may be reversible and in these reactions a high yield is never
possible as the products are continually turning back into the reactants
o Some products may also be lost during separation and purification stages
such as filtration or distillation
o There may be side reactions occurring where a substance reacts with a gas
in the air or an impurity in one of the reactants
o Products can also be lost during transfer from one container to another
Actual & Theoretical Yield

 The actual yield is the recorded amount of product obtained

 The theoretical yield is the amount of product that would be obtained under perfect
practical and chemical conditions
 It is calculated from the balanced equation and the reacting masses
 The percentage yield compares the actual yield to the theoretical yield
 For economic reasons, the objective of every chemical producing company is to have
as high a percentage yield as possible to increase profits and reduce costs and
waste
 To calculate percentage yield the following equation is used: