MODULE 2

BASIC ECOLOGICAL
CONCEPTS

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 I-Introduction
A. Learning Objectives

At the end of the chapter, the students must have:

1. Explained how energy and nutrients flow within the ecosystems.

2. Discussed the significance of biogeochemical cycles to organisms.
3. Discussed types of interactions between organisms in communities.
4. Explained the importance of interactions among organisms in the communities.
5. Recognized the significance of biodiversity on earth.
6. Propose ways on how to conserve and protect biodiversity.

B. Expected Outputs:

1. Worksheet 3- Illustration of Energy and Nutrient Flow

2. Worksheet 4- Biogeochemical Cycle
3. Worksheet 5- Species Interaction
4. Community-Based Learning- Interview on the Best Practices of the Barangay on
Conservation and Protection of Biodiversity
5. Action Plan

II- Serious Talk

A. Energy Flow

Energy moves life. The cycle of energy is based on the flow of energy
through different trophic levels in an ecosystem. Our ecosystem is maintained by
the cycling energy and nutrients obtained from different external sources.
 PHOTOSYNTHESIS
➢ The process where the Sun’s
energy is converted into
chemical energy
(Glucose/Sugar).
➢ Occurs in PLANTS!!
➢ Producer – an organism that
makes its own energy-rich
food compounds using the
Sun’s energy
➢ On land, major producers
are green plants – contain
chlorophyll, which captures
light energy.

CELLULAR RESPIRATION

➢ The process where sugar is converted into carbon dioxide, water and energy.
➢ The organism uses this energy to do everything.

sugar + oxygen ⎯
⎯→ carbon dioxide + water + energy
Photosynthesis and Cellular Respiration
Photosynthesis

carbon dioxide + water ⎯light

⎯⎯ ⎯→ sugar + oxygen
energy

Notice Anything?
C

sugar + oxygen ⎯
⎯→ carbon dioxide + water + energy
Cellular Respiration
FOOD CHAINS
➢ A sequence of organisms each feeding on the next, showing how energy is
transferred from one organism to another.
pine cone red squirrel weasel goshawk
➢ The arrow points to the consumer
➢ Food chains do not exist in nature. They simply show feeding relationships

Producers
➢ Also known as autotrophs
➢ organisms that can convert energy from the sun into food
➢ (auto = self; troph = feeder)

Consumers
➢ Also known as heterotrophs
➢ organisms that rely on other organisms for food
➢ (hetero = other; troph = feeder)

Herbivores – organisms whose main source of energy is plant matter

Carnivores – organisms whose main source of energy is animal matter
Omnivores – organisms who eat both plant and animal matter

Detrivores - organisms that feed on plant and animal remains and other dead matter
Decomposers – organisms that obtain energy by breaking down dead organic matter

TROPHIC LEVEL
➢ The trophic level of an organism in an ecosystem depends on its
feeding position along a food chain.
➢ First trophic level – producers
➢ Second trophic level – primary consumers
Will eat producers only
➢ Third trophic level – secondary consumers
➢ Can eat primary consumers and producers
➢ Fourth trophic level – tertiary consumers
➢ Can eat secondary consumers, primary consumers,
producers
FOOD WEBS
A network of complex interactions formed by the feeding relationships among the various
organisms in an ecosystem.

➢ They are very useful when figuring out what may happen when a species is removed from or
added to an ecosystem
➢ If a species is removed the number of animals that would normally eat it would decrease, why?
➢ The introduction of a new species can also dramatically alter the food web as new feeding
patterns are established

PYRAMID OF ENERGY
An energy pyramid (sometimes called a trophic pyramid or an ecological pyramid) is a
graphical representation, showing the flow of energy at each trophic level in an ecosystem.

The width of each bar represents the units of energy available within each trophic level; the
height is always the same. The flow of energy moves through the layers of the energy pyramid from
the bottom-up, and is gradually reduced as energy is
used up by the organisms at each level.

The pyramid shape is used to represent the

flow of energy because of the way that energy is used
up and lost throughout the system.
Energy is used up for all life processes such as
respiration, movement, metabolic processes, and
reproduction. So, of the 100% total energy available
to the plants, only around 10% is made into plant
tissues, while 90% is used up and is lost as heat.
At each of the subsequent trophic levels, the
same amount of energy (90%) is lost as heat, while
10% is turned into available biomatter. By the time
the energy reaches the top trophic level, the apex
predators will only receive 0.01% of the primary
energy! Because there is so little energy available at
the highest trophic level, food chains are typically
limited to a maximum of six levels.
 PYRAMID OF BIOMASS
A pyramid of biomass shows the total biomass of
the organisms involved at each trophic level of an
ecosystem. These pyramids are not necessarily upright.
There can be lower amounts of biomass at the bottom of
the pyramid if the rate of primary production per
unit biomass is high.

Pyramid
of biomass is
inverted in an
aquatic ecosystem because the biomass of fishes far exceeds
the biomass of phytoplanktons. Also, longevity may vary for
different trophic levels. Eg, a parrot which is a primary
consumer has a greater longevity than humans.

B. Biogeochemical Cycle

Did you know that all elements are recycled over and over again on Earth? In this lesson, we'll
learn about the biogeochemical cycles.
The movement of matter through a closed system such that there is no beginning or end of the
movement; the matter simply moves between reservoirs.
Living organisms depend on chemical inputs to sustain their energy needs and well-being. The
speed, location and efficiency with which these chemicals are moved, changed and recycled is directly
correlated with the diversity and scale of life on Earth. The cycles can also help explain the
accumulation of greenhouse gasses and illustrate the impacts of anthropogenic interactions with the
environment.
Many chemical elements and molecules are critical to life on earth, but the biogeochemical
cycling of carbon, water, and nitrogen are most critical to human well-being and the natural world.

Biogeochemical cycle is any of the natural pathways by

which essential elements of living matter are circulated. The term
biogeochemical is a contraction that refers to the consideration of
the biological, geological, and chemical aspects of each cycle.
Elements within biogeochemical cycles flow in various
forms from the nonliving (abiotic) components of the biosphere to
the living (biotic) components and back. In order for the living
components of a major ecosystem (e.g., a lake or a forest) to
survive, all the chemical elements that make up living cells must
be recycled continuously.
Carbon Cycle
Carbon enters into the living world in the form of carbon dioxide through the process of
photosynthesis as carbohydrates. These organic compounds (food) are then passed from the producers
to the consumers (herbivores & carnivores). This carbon is finally returned to the surrounding medium
by the process of respiration or
decomposition of plants and animals by the
decomposers. Carbon is also recycled
during the burning of fossil fuels.
Human Interactions With The Carbon
Cycle

The global carbon cycle contributes

substantially to the provisioning ecosystem
services upon which humans depend. We
harvest approximately 25% of the total
plant biomass that is produced each year on
the land surface to supply food, fuel wood
and fiber from croplands, pastures and
forests. Anthropogenic CO2
emissions, where humans release CO 2 into
the atmosphere by burning fossil fuels and
changing land use. Land use
change releases carbon from soil and plant
biomass pools into the atmosphere, particularly through the process of deforestation for wood
extraction or conversion of land to agriculture. Rising atmospheric CO 2 concentrations in the
twentieth century caused increases in temperature and started to alter other aspects of the global
environment.

Nitrogen Cycle
Nitrogen is present in the atmosphere in an
elemental form and as such it cannot be utilized by
living organisms. This elemental form of nitrogen
is converted into combined state with elements
such as H, C, O by certain bacteria, so that it can
be readily used by the plants.
Nitrogen is being continuously expelled
into the air by the action of microorganisms such
as denitrifying bacteria and finally returned to the
cycle through the action of lightening and
electrification.
Effects of Human Activities
on the Nitrogen Cycle

We alter the nitrogen cycle by:

➢ Adding gases that contribute to acid rain.

➢ Adding nitrous oxide to the atmosphere through farming practices which can
warm the atmosphere and deplete ozone.
 ➢ Contaminating ground water from nitrate ions in inorganic fertilizers.
➢ Releasing nitrogen into the troposphere through deforestation.

Water Cycle
The evaporation of water from ocean, rivers, lakes, and transpiring plants takes water in the
form of vapors to the atmosphere. This vaporized water subsequently cools and condenses to form
cloud and water. This cooled water vapor ultimately returns to the earth as rain and snow, completing
the cycle.

Condensation
Rain clouds

Transpiration
Evaporation
Precipitation to Transpiration
land from plants Precipitation
Precipitation Evaporation
Surface runoff from land Evaporation
Runoff from ocean Precipitation to
(rapid)
ocean

Infiltration and Surface

Percolation runoff
(rapid)
Groundwater movement (slow)

Ocean storage

Processes involved in Water Cycle Figure 4-28

➢ Evaporation -Water changes from liquid to gas Page 76
➢ Transpiration -Water evaporates from the leaves into the atmosphere.
Slide 34
➢ Condensation - Water vapor (gas) turns into liquid water forming clouds.
➢ Precipitation -Water droplets become large enough to fall to Earth
-Rain, snow, sleet, or hail
➢ Surface Runoff - Rain, snow, that flows into streams, rivers, or canals.

Effects of Human Activities on Water Cycle

We alter the water cycle by:
➢ Withdrawing large amounts of freshwater.
➢ Clearing vegetation and eroding soils.
➢ Polluting surface and underground water.
➢ Contributing to climate change.

Phosphorus (P) Cycle

Phosphorus is a chemical element found on Earth in numerous compound forms, such as the
phosphate ion (PO43-), located in water, soil and sediments. The quantities of phosphorus in soil are
generally small, and this often limits plant growth.
Phosphorus moves in a cycle through rocks, water, soil and sediments and organisms. Over
time, rain and weathering cause rocks to release phosphate ions and other minerals. This
inorganic phosphate is then distributed in soils and water. Phosphorus in soil can end up in waterways
and eventually oceans.

Effects of Human Activities

on the Phosphorous Cycle
➢ Humans mine LARGE
quantities of phosphate rock to
use in commercial fertilizers
and detergents. Phosphorous is
NOT found as a gas, only as a
solid in the earth’s crust. It
takes millions to hundreds of
millions of years to replenish.
➢ Phosphorous is held in the
tissue of the trees and
vegetation, not in the soil and as
we deforest the land, we remove
the ability for phosphorous to
replenish globally in
ecosystems.
➢ Cultural eutrophication – ad
excess phosphate to aquatic ecosystems in runoff of animal wastes from livestock feedlots,
runoff of commercial phosphate fertilizers from cropland, and discharge of municipal sewage.
➢ We remove large amounts of phosphate from the earth to make fertilizer.
➢ reduce phosphorous in tropical soils by clearing forests.
➢ We add excess phosphates to aquatic systems from runoff of animal wastes and fertilizers.

Sulfur trioxide
Water
Sulfuric acid Acidic fog and
precipitation
Sulfur (s) Cycle
➢ Component of protein
Ammonia Ammonium
sulfate ➢ Cycles in both a gas and
Oxygen
Sulfur dioxide Hydrogen sedimentary cycle.
sulfide
➢ The source of Sulfur is the
Plants lithosphere (earth's crust)
Volcano ➢ Sulfur (S) enters the
Dimethyl atmosphere as hydrogen sulfide
sulfide Industries Animals
(H2S) during fossil fuel
combustion, volcanic eruptions,
Ocean gas exchange at ocean surfaces,
and decomposition.
Sulfate salts
➢ SO2 and water vapor
makes H2SO4 (a weak sulfuric
Decaying
Metallic
sulfide
matter Sulfur acid), which is then carried to
deposits Earth in rainfall.
Hydrogen
sulfide
➢ Sulfur in soluble form is
taken up by plant roots and
incorporated into amino acids
Figure 4-34 such as cysteine. It then travels
Page 83
through the food chain and is eventually released through decomposition.
Importance of sulfur cycle Slide 42
1. Sulfur is a component of most proteins and some vitamins.
2. Sulfate ions (SO4 2- ) dissolved in water are common in plant tissue. They are part of sulfur-
containing amino acids that are the building blocks for proteins.
 3. Sulfur bonds give the three-dimensional structure of amino acids.
4. Many animals, including humans, depend on plants for sulfur-containing amino acids.

Effects of Human Activities on the Sulfur Cycle

We add sulfur dioxide to the atmosphere by:
➢ Burning coal and oil
➢ Refining sulfur containing petroleum.
➢ Convert sulfur-containing metallic ores into free metals such as copper, lead, and zinc
releasing sulfur dioxide into the environment.

C. Species Interaction

"No man is an island.” This saying is also true for organisms in an ecosystem. No organism
exists in isolation. Individual organisms live together in an ecosystem and depend on one another. In
fact, they have many different types of interactions with each other, and many of these interactions are
critical for their survival.

Patterns Exist in Populations

Patterns in Living Space
➢ Animals in a habitat are located based on food supplies, water,
and shelter locations. [Link]
➢ Some animals live in large
groups for safety ( fish and elephants )

Patterns in Time
➢ Population sizes can change with seasons
➢ Many organisms migrate to other areas (monarch butterflies and birds)

Organisms Interact in Different Ways

Organisms may cooperate, compete, or depend on each other for survival

Predator and Prey relationships

An organism which feeds on

another organism for their food is called
predator while the organism that is fed
upon is termed as the prey. This kind of
interaction between the prey and
predator is known as predation.
Typically, a predator tends to be larger
than that of the prey, and hence they
consume many preys during their life
cycle. The predator Panthera tigris amoyensis feeding on the blesbuck, the prey
Competition
➢ Competition is the struggle between individuals or different populations for a limited resource.
➢ It is a relationship in which different organisms or populations
in the ecosystem attempt to use the same limited resources at the same
time.
➢ When two organisms compete or fight for the same limited
resource such as food, shelter, a mate, or sunlight, there is usually a
winner and a loser (+ -), but if the competitors fight literally to the
death and kill each other, the interaction has become negative for
both (- -).

Types of Competition
Intraspecific
➢ Competition can happen with the same species (plants
compete for light, space, and nutrients)
Interspecific
➢ Competition between different species (hyenas and
vultures compete for remains of dead animals)

Camouflage

This is a blending phenomenon of an organism with

the background color of its habitat is a common method of
avoiding detection by their predators in the ecosystem .

Mimicry
This is a phenomenon characterized by the superficial
resemblance of two or more organisms that are not closely
related taxonomically.

Cooperation

Some organisms work together to benefit each other

➢ Killer whales hunt in pods (groups)
➢ Ants, bees, and termites (members of a colony have different roles and
responsibilities…queen bee, worker bees, etc.)

Symbiosis: two different species who live together in a close relationship

➢ Both species benefit
➢ One species benefits while the other is not affected
➢ One species benefits while the other is harmed

Mutualism: Two species interacting with each other

that benefits both species. (bees and flowers).
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 Commensalism: two species interacting with each other
with one species benefiting and the other unaffected. (jellyfish and
fish)

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Parasitism: two species interacting while one species

benefits and the host species is harmed

D. Biodiversity

Biodiversity is the variability among living

organisms from all sources, including terrestrial, marine,
and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes
of which they are part; this
includes diversity within species, between species, and of
ecosystems.
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➢ Biodiversity forms the foundation of the vast array of ecosystem services that critically
contribute to human well-being.
➢ Biodiversity is important in human-managed as well as natural ecosystems.
➢ Biodiversity is the foundation of ecosystem services to which human well-being is intimately
linked. No feature of Earth is more complex, dynamic, and varied than the layer of living
organisms that occupy its surfaces and its seas, and no feature is experiencing more dramatic
change at the hands of humans than this extraordinary, singularly unique feature of Earth.

Why is diversity important?

➢ It is important because it indicates the variety of ecological niches and genetic variation
in community.
➢ Biodiversity, the diversity of life on Earth, is essential to the healthy functioning of
ecosystems. Habitat loss and overexploitation, driven by our rapid population growth,
are the primary causes of biodiversity loss which is now happening up to ten thousand
times faster than for millions of years before.
➢ Healthy ecosystems, interdependent webs of living organisms and their physical
environment, are vital to all life on Earth. Our ecosystems provide us with clean air,
fresh water, food, resources and medicine. Throughout Earth’s history, healthy
ecosystems have usually been resilient enough to adapt to gradual environmental
change.
➢ Biodiversity, the variation of life on Earth, is a major factor in its resilience. In a bio
diverse ecosystem, if the environment changes and some organisms can no longer
thrive, others can take their place and fulfil essential functions. It is often the most
overlooked species that are the most important to healthy ecosystems. Insects, for
 example, play an essential role in pollinating flowering
plants — a third of the food we eat depends on animal
pollinators.
Types of Biodiversity

A. Genetic Biodiversity

Genetic biodiversity is related to the genes of living organism and

is the diversity within the specific species. Genes are responsible
for transmission of certain factors or traits from one generation to the
next within the same species, so
genetic biodiversity has occurred
within the same specific species. It is
also called as within species diversity. [Link]
Genes give unique characters or
features to each individual species.

For example, human beings are the Homo sapiens and, besides all,
the homo sapiens are not exactly alike. There are some differences in shape, size, body colour, hair
style, etc and these differences make them unique identity. Each person is genetically unique and
that’s why different peoples have different faces, features and characters, they are all humans but
genetically different and that is genetic biodiversity in human.
B. Species Biodiversity [Link]

➢ Different kinds of organism, relationships among species.

[Link]

➢ Species Biodiversity – is the effective number of different species that are represented in a
collection of individuals.

[Link] [Link]

C. Ecosystem Biodiversity
➢ Ecosystem Biodiversity – refers to the
diversity of a place at the level
ecosystems. The term differs from
biodiversity, which refers to variation in
species rather than ecosystems.
➢ Ecosystem Biodiversity is defined as,
"the aggregation of various habitats,
community types and abiotic
environment in a given area.
➢ India is one of the biggest ecosystem
diversity, ranging from the dessert,
plains, hills, mangroves, rainforest and
cold Himalayas. [Link]
➢ Example:
Biomes – a major ecological community type (as tropical rainforest, grassland or dessert).
Threats to Biodiversity
➢ Habitat destruction – important to protect habitat in order to protect biodiversity within it. Huge
pressure from the worlds rapidly increasing population.
➢ Global Climate Change – change in biotic elements of ecosystems leading to biotic change.
➢ Pollution – introduction of pollutants such as nutrients overloading with nitrate fertilizer as
well as immediate harmful chemicals.
➢ Habitat Fragmentation – from human activity. Reduce ability of habitat support species.
➢ Over exploitation – this include the illegal wildlife trade as well as overfishing, logging of
tropical hardwood etc.

What is Poaching?

Poaching is the illegal hunting, harvesting, taking

and trapping of wild plants or animals.
Why is poaching done?
• Poaching is done with a large profit gained by the illegal sale
or trade of animal parts, meat and pelts.
• It exists because there is a great demand for these products
• Many cultures believe that
certain animal parts[Link]
have medical
value.
How does poaching
affect the environment?

➢ Poaching or illegal hunting

causes animals endangered of being extinct. If more animals
become extinct there’s a disruption in the food chain, and that will
cause major problems in our ecosystem, resulting eventually in new adaptations of animals,
and or species beyond human control.
[Link]

➢ Poaching results in animals being hunted too soon for them to have time to reproduce and
-[Link]

repopulate.

III- Check Your Understanding

1. Worksheet 3- Illustration of energy and nutrient flow within an ecosystem
 2. Worksheet 4- Biogeochemical Cycles.
Directions: Identify the processes involved in the different biogeochemical cycles.
3. Worksheet 5- Species Interactions
 4. Performance Task.
Community- Based Learning. Conduct a brief interview (phone/personal) with your Barangay
Captain or any Barangay official on some of the Best Practices of the Barangay on the Conservation
and Protection of Biodiversity.

5. Action Plan. Make your own action plan indicating/proposing ways on how to conserve
and protect biodiversity that can be adopted by the local government unit or barangay.

IV- The Finish Line

Directions. Answer the following questions briefly but concisely.

1. How does energy and nutrients flow within the ecosystem?

_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________

2. Why is Biogeochemical cycle important?

_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
5. Why is Biodiversity important on Earth?
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________

Lecture Wrapper
What do I already know about this topic?
_________________________________________________________________
How do I feel about this topic?
_________________________________________________________________
How does this topic relate to something I already know?
_________________________________________________________________
What questions do I have already about this topic?
_________________________________________________________________

V- Additional Readings & References

Online materials:
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[Link]/earthmotion3/images/Carbon_Cycle.ppt
[Link]/d3/annalisa/ocean_sv/[Link]
[Link]/Koretsky/envs2150/Pcycle_1.ppt
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Powerpoint presentations downloadable in Google Classroom

Books:

Tayo, G.T, Gascon, C.N, Maglambayan, V.B, Novicio, L.P, Viril, V.M. 2004. Fundamentals
of Environmental Science. Trinitas Publishing Inc.

Doria, B.D, Tangonan, L.F, Ruadap, M.V. 2019. General Education Environmental Science.
Jimczyville Publications.

Cunningham, W.P & Cunningham, M.A. 2009. Principles of Environmental Science: Inquiry
and Applications. McGraw-Hill Company, Inc.

Images:
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