Chapter 9. How do organisms Reproduce?

(REPRODUCTION)

Reproduction is the process by which a living organism produces new individuals of

its own kind.

Importance of Reproduction

• It is important for the existence and continuity of species.

• It allows transmission of characters from generation to generation.
• Reproduction involves copying of DNA and adding cell apparatuses.
• it also leads to variation among organisms.

DNA (Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid)

• Chromosomes are made up of DNA strands, which are present in the nucleus
of cells.
 Each segment of DNA is called genes.
 Genes contain codes for protein, which is responsible for maintenance of
body designs and features.
 Chromosomes /DNA are responsible for the transfer of characters from
parents to offspring.

Importance of DNA copying

• DNA copying means production of an exact copy of the original.

• DNA copying (DNA replication) in reproduction is important for maintenance
of body designs and features. It is also responsible for bringing variations,
which helps in the survival of species.
• DNA copying is not perfectly accurate and it may lead to variations.
•
Importance of Variation (Beneficial of variation)

 The process of DNA copying leads to variations.

1. Variation leads to formation of new species. 2. Helps in the survival of

species over time.

Types of Reproduction

Living organisms’ reproduce mainly through :

(i) Asexual reproduction
(ii) Sexual reproduction
 Sexual Reproduction Asexual reproduction

It involves the fusion of gametes No fusion of gametes

It occurs between two parents Only single parent is involved
It leads to variation Offspring similar to parent

ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION

It is the reproduction in which new organisms are produced from a single parent.

Asexual Reproduction is of different types.

i) Fission (Single celled Organisms)

ii) Budding (Single celled and multi celled organisms)
iii) Spore formation (Single celled and multi celled organisms)
iv) Fragmentation (Only multi celled organisms)
v) Regeneration (Only multi celled organisms)

1. Fission: Fission is an asexual reproduction by which an unicellular organism

divides and forms two or more new individuals.
Fission is of two types.
1. Binary fission: It is a kind of asexual reproduction in which an
organism divides and forms two individuals. First nucleus divides
and forms two nuclei. Then the cytoplasm divides and forms two
daughter cells.
Eg : Amoeba, Paramoecium.
2. Multiple fission: In this method one organism divides to form many
daughter cells. Eg: Plasmodium (Malarial parasite)

In organisms such as Amoeba, splitting can take place in any plane. But in
organisms like Leishmania (which cause kala-azar), having whip like structure at one
end of the cell, binary fission occurs in a definite orientation in relation to these
structures.
[Link]: It is a kind of asexual reproduction in which, a bud like projection is formed
on the body of the organism. The bud then develops into a new individual. It then
separates from the parent and forms an independent individual. Eg ; Hydra, Yeast

Yeast multiplies faster in sugar solution because sugar provides energy for all the
activities,

Regeneration: In this method a part of the body of an organism, if cut or broken

accidently, can develop into a new individual. Regeneration is the process by which some
organisms replace or restore lost body parts

However, regeneration is not the same as reproduction because in regeneration lost body
part is devloped from existing body part. And in reproduction whole new organism develops
(from the gametes).

Eg; Hydra, Planaria, Star fish

 Why do you think more complex organisms cannot give rise to new individuals
through regeneration?

In a complex multicellular organism, specialized cells make up tissue and tissues make
up an organ. Organs make up an organ system and finally organ systems make up an
organism. Since it is such a complex process it is not easy to develop organism through
regeneration.

Spore Formation (Sporulation): All fungi reproduce by spore formation. In this

method, a sac like structures called sporangia produce tiny cells called spores. When
the sporangium matures, it burst and if the spores come in contact with moist surface
(and nutrients), it develops into new individuals. Eg : Rhizopus, penicillium

o Since Spores are usually light weight and they get easily dispersed through winds giving
them more variation and thus better chances of survival.
 The thread like structures in fungi are called hyphae

Fragmentation: It can be seen in Spirogyra (Green filamentous bodies found in

water). In this method, the body of a simple multicellular organism breaks up into
smaller pieces on maturation. Each piece is called fragment and each fragment
develops into new individuals

Vegetative propagation: It is the simplest method of reproduction in some higher

plants. Vegetative propagation is the process in which new plants are produced from
any vegetative part of the plant such as root, stem, leaf, etc

Advantages of vegetative propagation (Why is vegetative propagation practiced

for growing some type of plants?)

i) Vegetative propagation is useful for plants those have lost the capacity to
produce seeds, e.g. banana, rose, jasmine.
ii) The plants produced by vegetative propagation are genetically similar to the
parent plant.
iii) It is faster process
iv) It preserves parental characteristics.
 Disadvantages of vegetative propagation

i) Offsprings do not show any genetic variations.

ii) It leads to over crowding around parent plants.

Natural Vegetative Propagation:

(i) In some plants, new plants can be produced from roots. Roots sprout and
grow into new plants during favorable conditions. Eg. sweet potato, dahlia
etc.
(ii) In some plants new plants can be produced from underground stems.
Example: onion, banana, garlic, ginger, turmeric, etc.
(iii) New plants can be produced from leaf. Example: Bryophyllum

Vegetative propagation in Bryophyllum: Bryophyllum reproduces by the vegetative

propagation method. During this method, buds produced in the notches along the leaf
margin of bryophyllum fall on the soil and develop into new plants

Artificial Methods of vegetative propagation: Cutting, layering and grafting.

What are the advantages of sexual reproduction over asexual reproduction?

 Sexual reproduction plays an important role in the origin of new species having different
characteristics, which is not possible in the case of asexual reproduction.

 Sexual reproduction produces genetic variations, which produces diversity of characters

whereas it is not possible in asexual reproduction.

Tissue Culture
In tissue culture method, new plants are grown by removing tissues or cells from
growing tip of a plant. These cells are placed in agar-agar solution, where they divide
rapidly to form many cells (Callus). Each cell develops into new plantlets.

Advantages of tissue culture

i) By tissue culture method more number of plants can be produced from

a cell within short time in small place.
ii) These plantlets can be grown in disease free conditions.

Sexual Reproduction

It is the reproduction in which two parents are involved to produce a new individual.

Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants

Reproductive parts of a flower

 Flower is the Reproductive organ of a plant

 Flower has four parts- Sepals, Petals, Stamen and Pistil.
 Stamens and Carpels are the reproductive parts of a flower.

Stamen is the male reproductive part. It has two parts – filament and anther.

Anther produces male gametes called pollen grains.

 Pistil is the female reproductive part. It has three parts- stigma, style and ovary.

Ovary contains female gametes called ovule.

Function of sepals and petals

 Sepal protects the inner parts of flower.

 Petals attract insects for pollination.
Unisexual Flower

The flower which contains either stamen or pistil is called unisexual flower.

Eg: papaya, water melon

Bisexual flower

The flower which contains both stamen and carpel is called bisexual flower.

Eg: hibiscus, mustard

Pollination
 Transfer of pollen grains from anther to stigma is termed as Pollination.
 This transfer of pollen grains occurs with the help of pollinating agents like wind,
water, insects, birds etc

Types of pollination

[Link]-pollination; Transfer of pollen grains from the anther to stigma of same flower or
stigma of another flower in same plant.

2. Cross Pollination: Transfer of pollen grains from the anther of one flower to stigma
of another flower of different plant of same kind.

Significance of Cross Pollination

Cross pollination brings variation and help the plant to adapt with the climatic conditions.

Fertilization in flowering plants

  When the pollen grain falls on stigma of a flower, a pollen tube arises from one of
the pollen grain, which passes through the style and grows towards the ovary
and finally enters the ovule.
 Pollen grain contains two male gametes.
 Out of two male gametes present in pollen tube, one fuses with egg to form
zygote. This fusion is called fertilization.
 The other male gamete fuse with two polar nuclei (secondary nucleus) to form
endosperm, which is the reserved food for the growth of embryo.
 Therefore, the fertilization in flowering plants is called double fertilization.

What happens after fertilization? (Changes during post fertilization)

 After fertilization, the zygote divides several times to form an embryo within the
ovule.
 The ovule develops a tough coat and gradually turns into a seed.
 The ovary grows rapidly and ripens to form a fruit.
 Meanwhile the petals, sepals, stamens, style and stigma may shrivel and fall off.

(Germination of pollen tube diagram)

Germination
Seed contains an embryo.
Development of seedlings from embryo is called germination.
Embryo has 3 parts.
1. Plumule – Develops into shoot
2. Radicle – Develops into root
3. Cotyledons – Reserved food for the growth of embryo

Diagram

Reproduction in human beings:

 The reproductive organs of human beings are called gonads.

 These are testes in male and ovaries in female.
 Testes produces sperms and ovary produces ova (eggs) at the age of puberty
(after attainment of sexual maturity). Various changes occur in girls and boys at
this age.

Puberty
The physical changes appear in the body during adolescence period is termed as
Puberty.

Changes in boys during puberty (Secondary sexual characteristics in Boys)

o Thick hair growth under armpits & genital area
o Facial hair
o Change in voice
o Penis enlargement
o Starts producing sperms
o Shoulder widens
o Muscular Development
Changes in girls during puberty (Secondary sexual characteristics in girls)
o Start of menstruation cycle
o Breast enlargement
o Hair growth under armpits & genital area
o Hip widens
o Starts maturing ova
o High pitch and sharp voice

Male Reproductive System

consists of the following parts / organs:

Testes:

A pair of testes are situated in scrotum that lie outside the abdominal cavity and behind
the penis.

Function of testes

i) Testes produce sperms

ii) It also produces male sex hormones called testosterone hormone.

Function of Testosterone

Testosterone is responsible for the secondary sexual characteristics in boys when they
reach puberty.

Why do testes locate in scrotal sacs?

Scrotum maintains the temperature of testes. Testes cannot produce sperms at high
body temperature, Sperms are produced at low temperature, 2 to 3 C below the body
temperature.

When outside temperature is high, muscles of scrotum relax and testes hang down.

When outside temperature is low, muscles of scrotum contract and close to lower
abdomen to get warm.

Vasdeferens (Sperm duct): It is the tube arise from the testis and it opens to
urethra.

Function of Vasdeferens: It transports sperms from testis to urethra.

Urethra: Vas deferens tube opens into a common tube called urethra. It runs through a
muscular organ called Penis.,

Function of urethra: Urethra has dual functions. It carries both urine and sperms.

Accessory Glands: Accessory Glands that help in reproduction are prostate, seminal
vesicles and Cowper’s gland.

Function of Seminal vesicle and Prostate gland

Seminal vesicles and Prostate gland add their secretions to sperms, which make
transport of sperms easier and this fluid also provides nutrition.

(Seminal vesicle: It secretes a fluid that acts as medium for the movement of sperms.
Prostate gland: Its secretion acts as lubricant in semen.)

Semen: Semen is the mixture of secretions from accessory glands and sperms.

Female Reproductive System: It consists of following organs

Ovaries: Paired ovaries are located in the abdominal cavity near the kidney.

Function of ovary:

i) Ovaries produce female gamete (ovum or egg).

ii) It also secretes female hormones called oestrogen and progesterone.

One egg is matured every month alternately from one of the ovaries.

Fallopian Tube (Oviduct) : One end of the fallopian tube opens near ovary and other
end is to uterus.

Functions of Fallopian tube (Oviduct)

iii) It is the site of fertilization.

iv) It transports ovum (egg) to uterus

Uterus: The two oviducts unite into an elastic bag like structure known as the uterus.

Function of Uterus

i) It provides nourishment to the growing embryo.

 ii) Implantation takes place in uterus.

Cervix : The lower narrower part of uterus.

Vagina ( Birth Canal) : Uterus opens into vagina. It is female copulatory organ

Fertilization in Human beings

• The semen is discharged into the vaginal tract during copulation.

• The sperms travel upwards and reach the fallopian tube where one sperm
fuses with the ovum to form the zygote.

• The zygote divides and divides to form embryo, which gets implanted in the
wall of uterus(Endometrium)

• The endometrium thickens so as to receive the embryo

Implantation: Fixing of embryo in the inner lining of uterus (endometrium) is called

implantation.

Placenta: Placenta is the disk like structure found in the inner lining of uterus. Placenta
provides nourishment to growing embryo.

Functions of Placenta

Embryo gets nutrition from the mother’s blood with the help of special tissue called
placenta.

i) Placenta helps in the diffusion of nutrients and oxygen from mother’s blood to
foetus blood.
ii) Placenta also helps in the diffusion of waste materials from foetus blood to
mother’s blood.
iii) Placenta also acts as endocrine glands (which produce hormones)

What happens if fertilization does not take place?

Since the ovary releases one egg every month, the uterus prepares itself every month
to receive the fertilized egg. Thus, its lining becomes thick and spongy with blood
vessels. If fertilization does not occur, the lining of uterus slowly breaks down and
comes out through vagina as blood and mucus. It is known as menstruation. It usually
lasts for about 2-5 days.

Umbilical Cord: It is the cord that connects placenta with foetus.

• It transmits the materials to and from the placenta.
Foetus : When the embryo looks like human being, it is called as foetus

What happens if fertilization take place?

 The zygote divides and divides to form embryo, which gets implanted in the inner
wall of uterus and leads to pregnancy.
• Then the inner wall of uterus becomes thick and spongy with blood vessels
for nourishing the embryo and hence menstruation stops.

Reproductive Health

Reproductive organs need a lot of care and hygiene. Otherwise they are susceptible to
many infections or diseases.

Sexually transmitted diseases

 The diseases which spread through sexual contacts are known as sexually
transmitted diseases.
e.g., bacterial infections like syphilis, gonorrhea and viral infections such as
warts and HIV- AIDS.
 Condom helps to prevent transmission of sexually transmitted diseases.

Contraception: Prevention of pregnancy.

Contraceptive Methods : Methods to prevent pregnancy.

Frequent pregnancy causes many health problems and also adds to an already
exploding population. Many ways have been devised to avoid pregnancy. Contraception
can be achieved by:
• Mechanical barrier method (use of condoms) : Condoms prevents the meeting of
sperm with ovum.

Diaphragm : It is the female condom .

• Chemical methods (use of pills) : It prevents the release of ovum.
• Use of contraceptive devices (copper-T): Copper- T prevents implantation. ( Copper
T does not protect from sexually transmitted diseases)
• Surgical methods (vasectomy in males and tubectomy in females)

Vasectomy: Surgical permanent contraceptive methods in male. In vasectomy,

vasdeferns is cut and tied. It blocks the sperms. It has to be performed in both sides.
Otherwise sperm from another testis may fuse with ovum.
 Tubectomy: Surgical permanent contraceptive methods in female. In tubectomy,
fallopian tube is cut and tied. It blocks the ovum. It has to be performed in both sides.
Otherwise ovum another ovary may fuse with sperm.

How does reproduction help in providing stability to the population of a species?

Every species has to constantly struggle for its survival. The rate of birth and death in a
given population determines its stability. Birth rate and death rate should be
approximately equal. Reproduction is a way to replenish the lost section of the
population.

What could be the reasons for adopting contraceptive methods?

The main reasons are

 Preventing sexually transmitted diseases

 Control population
 Avoiding frequent and unwanted pregnancies
 Spacing the birth.

• Pre-natal sex determination is banned because;

i) to prevent female foeticides
ii) to maintain sex ratio in population