Chapter 2: Scientific Research

 We research to:
o Describe, make accurate predictions, demonstrate some control over
some variables, be able to explain with confidence
o APPLY research to serve humanity
o To purely describe phenomenon (sometimes this step is skipped) and
from this make predictions based on description of how the world
works
 Get to control over the variables being discussed
 Manipulating scientific jargon means to have influence over said subject/topic
 Scientific method:
1) Ask a question
2) Do background research
3) Construct a hypothesis
a. Can you use a hypothesis to change your mind?
i. If the truth is somewhat ‘chosen’ then maybe the only way to
see the full truth is to look at multiple hypothesis (different
perspectives)
4) Test hypothesis (experiment)
5) Analyze the data and draw a conclusion
6) Share result

 If you think that you don’t like something or disagree with an opinion, have
someone who agrees with what you disagree with it and learn from them;
have them talk about it
o Really think about how you become who you are
o Variable is the WHAT: factor/characteristic that is manipulated or measure
in research
 Independent variable is manipulated by the experiment which in
turn is to cause change in another variable
 Dependent variable is expected to change as a result of the
independent variable
 Ex. Plant (IV- amount of sunlight and amount of water, DV-
growth) & child (IV- quality caregiver support, nutrition,
health care, DV-growth)
o Growth can mean so many things when it comes to
humans
o Operational definition is the HOW: description of the exact methods that
will be used to measure the variable
 DSM (diagnostic statistical manual)
 Ex. self-reports, behavioral measures, physiological measures
 Self-reports are usually not that accurate
 Identifying observable and specific events so that any other
researcher could measure or test it out for themselves
  Clear/concise/objective definition of a measure
o Ex. speed, accuracy, kindness, genius
 Genius can come in many different forms/areas
from Einstein to Kanye
 Believing that you can measure human emotions (like despair) by a
list of 30 things is absurd because there SO many influences
 Types of Research:
o Descriptive research
 It’s goal is to describe and predict behavior and mental processes
 These are studies not experiments
 Examples:
 Naturalistic observation- observations of behavior in the
environment in which it typically occur
o Studying a cult, would you participate or would you
observe
o Strength: you can observe something outside of the
lab
o Limits: can’t determine the direct cause as it is hard to
be objective
 Case study- intensive examination of a specific
person/situation
o Strengths: very detailed, rare/private phenomena
o Limits: may not be representative
o Ex. Phineas Gage (a male construction worker got a
medal rod stuck in his head and managed to survive
but his personality changed a lot due to the incident)
 Able to identify how important the forebrain is
for personality
 Surveys- questionnaires/interviews given to many people
o Strengths: lots of data, fast, inexpensive
 Hypothesis still matter a lot
o Limits: questions to ask, response bias, sampling error,
predictions aren’t statistically appropriate
o Kinsey scale places people on a range from gay to
straight (at the time it was huge because when it was
created the idea was you either are or you aren’t, no
one thought there would be a spectrum)
 In 1920 John Watson attempted to demonstrate that he could create a phobia in
9-month old Albert. This is an example of a(n) ___________ research method.
 Correlational study- one variable related to another and how
strong is that relationship
o Positive correlation: increasing one increases the other
o Negative: increasing one decreases the other
o Zero: no predicted value
o Strengths: test relationships between concepts,
evaluate theories, and suggest new hypothesis
 Useful when variables cannot be manipulated
o Limits: correlation is NOT causation
  Ex. coffee as a cause of heart attacks
(correlation found)
 Never definitely assume causation from a
correlational relationship
o Experimental research
 Goal to predict, explain, and control behaviors/mental processes
 Manipulate an independent variable and measure its effects of a
dependent variable
 Strengths: cause and effect, independent and dependent
variables
 Limits: experimenter and subject biases, false sense of
certainty, extraneous variables, limited to
hypothesis/experimental design
 Have a population and then ideally you have your random sample
(doesn’t occur if your trying to test all of humanity) then random
assignment
 Random assignment negates the confounding limits as much
as possible
 Between subjects
 Goal is to predict, control, and explain behaviors and mental
processes
 Compare results of experiment and control groups
o Control group is like the placebo (gets no treatment)
o Random selection of a sample from a population
o Random assignment to a condition from a sample

 Within subjects
 All subjects given every ‘level’ of the independent variable
o Solves the ‘noise’ of individual differences but not
always possible
 Replication crisis is when you have a study that can be replicated and you do
replicate it but you don’t get the same results