Coffee

Coffee is a beverage brewed from roasted, ground coffee beans. Darkly colored, bitter, and slightly
acidic, coffee has a stimulating effect on humans, primarily due to its caffeine content, but
decaffeinated coffee is also commercially available. There are also various coffee substitutes.

Coffee production begins when the seeds from

Coffee
coffee cherries (the Coffea plant's fruits) are
separated to produce unroasted green coffee
beans. The "beans" are roasted and then ground
into fine particles. Coffee is brewed from the
ground roasted beans, which are typically steeped
in hot water before being filtered out. It is usually
served hot, although chilled or iced coffee is
Espresso latte and black filtered coffee
common. Coffee can be prepared and presented in
a variety of ways (e.g., espresso, French press, Type Usually hot, can be

caffè latte, or already-brewed canned coffee). iced

Sugar, sugar substitutes, milk, and cream are often Origin Yemen[1][2][3]
added to mask the bitter taste or enhance the
Introduced 15th century
flavor.

Color Black, dark brown,

Though coffee has become a global commodity, it
light brown, beige
has a long history tied closely to food traditions
around the Red Sea. The earliest credible reports of Flavor Distinctive,

coffee drinking pertain to the plant's use among the somewhat bitter

Sufis of Yemen in the middle of the 15th Ingredients Roasted coffee

[4][5]
century. Up to the end of the 17th century, most beans
of the world's coffee was imported from Yemen.
Standard drinkware Mug
But as the beverage gained in popularity, coffee
started to be cultivated in Java in the 17th century,
as well as in the Americas from the 18th century onward.[6]

The two most commonly grown coffee bean types are C. arabica and C. robusta.[7] Coffee plants are
cultivated in over 70 countries, primarily in the equatorial regions of the Americas, Southeast Asia,
the Indian subcontinent, and Africa. Green, unroasted coffee is traded as an agricultural commodity.
The global coffee industry is worth $495.50 billion, as of 2023.[8] In 2023, Brazil was the leading
grower of coffee beans, producing 31% of the world's total, followed by Vietnam. While coffee sales
reach billions of dollars annually worldwide, coffee farmers disproportionately live in poverty. Critics
of the coffee industry have pointed to its negative impact on the environment, including clearing of
land for coffee growing and water use.

Etymology

Green coffee describes the beans before

roasting.

The word coffee entered the English language in 1582 via the Dutch koffie, borrowed from the
Ottoman Turkish kahve (‫)قهوه‬, borrowed in turn from the Arabic qahwah (‫)َق ْه َو ة‬.[9] Medieval Arabic
lexicons traditionally held that the etymology of qahwah meant 'wine', given its distinctly dark color,
and was derived from the verb qahiya ( ‫)َق ِه َي‬, 'to have no appetite'.[10] The word qahwah most likely
meant 'the dark one', referring to the brew or the bean; qahwah is not the name of the bean, which
are known in Arabic as bunn and in Cushitic languages as būn. Semitic languages have the root qhh,
'dark color', which became a natural designation for the beverage. Its cognates include the Hebrew
qehe(h) 'dulling' and the Aramaic qahey ('give acrid taste to').[10] Although etymologists have
connected it with a word meaning 'wine', it is also thought to be from the Kaffa region of Ethiopia.[11]

The terms coffee pot and coffee break originated in 1705 and 1952, respectively.[12]

History

Legendary accounts

There are multiple anecdotal origin stories which lack evidence. In a commonly repeated legend,
Kaldi, a 9th-century Ethiopian goatherd, first observed the coffee plant after seeing his flock
energized by chewing on the plant.[4] This legend does not appear before 1671, first being related by
Antoine Faustus Nairon, a Maronite professor of Oriental languages and author of one of the first
printed treatises devoted to coffee, De Saluberrima potione Cahue seu Cafe nuncupata Discurscus
(Rome, 1671), indicating the story is likely apocryphal.[13][14][4] Another legend attributes the
discovery of coffee to a Sheikh Omar. Starving after being exiled from Mokha, Omar found berries.
After attempting to chew and roast them, Omar boiled them, which yielded a liquid that revitalized
and sustained him.[1]

Historical transmission

A 1652 handbill advertising

coffee for sale in St. Michael's
Alley, London

The earliest possible references to the coffee bean and its qualities appear in al-Razi's 10th-century
al-Hawi[a] and in Ibn Sina's 11th-century Qanun[15][b] both which describe a coffee plant component
called Latin: bunchum as hot and dry[c]—with al-Razi reporting beneficial effects for the stomach and
Ibn Sina also adding claims for the skin and body odor. According to later accounts, bunchum was
made from a root rather than from coffee beans.[16][17] There is no confirmed evidence, either
historical or archaeological, of coffee as a drink being consumed before the 15th century. The
beverage appears to be a relatively recent development. By the late 15th century, coffee drinking
was well established among Sufi communities in Yemen.[16][18]

One of the most important of the early writers on coffee was Abd al-Qadir al-Jaziri, who in 1587
compiled a work tracing the history and legal controversies of coffee entitled Umdat al Safwa fi hill
al-qahwa in which he claims that the coffee bean originated in the "land of Sa'ad ad-Din, and the
country of Abyssinia, and of the Jabart, and other places of the land of ‘Ajam, but the time of its first
use is unknown, nor do we know the reason." Al-Jazīrī asserts that coffee was introduced to Cairo at
the start of the 16th century by Sufi devotees.[19]
Coffee was probably long picked from the wild, and it was likely cultivated to an increasing extent
from the 14th century by the Islamized peoples of southeastern Ethiopia. The use of coffee is
believed to have spread across the Red Sea to the Rasulid sultanate of Yemen, who maintained
cultural and commercial ties with the Adal Sultanate. Its consumption first appears in Yemen,
particularly in regions such as Aden, Mocha and Zabid during the 15th century.[20][21] The 16th
century Islamic scholar Ibn Hajar al-Haytami writes about the plant's development from a tree in the
Zeila region.[22] In 1542, a Portuguese crew met with a ship from Zeila transporting clarified butter
and coffee to Al-Shihr in Yemen.[23]

Other sources of coffee drinking or knowledge of the coffee tree appears in the middle of the 15th
century in the accounts of Ahmed al-Ghaffar in Yemen,[4] where coffee seeds were first roasted and
brewed in a similar way to how it is prepared now. Coffee was used by Sufi circles to stay awake for
their religious rituals.[24] Accounts differ on the origin of the coffee plant before its appearance in
Yemen. Coffee may have been introduced to Yemen from Ethiopia via trade across the Red Sea.[25]
One account credits Muhammad Ibn Sa'd al-Dhabḥani for bringing coffee to Aden from the Somali
coast,[26] other early accounts say Ali ben Omar of the Shadhili Sufi order was the first to introduce
coffee to Arabia.[26][27][24]

By the 16th century, coffee had reached the rest of the Middle East and North Africa.[28] The first
coffee seeds were smuggled out of the Middle East by Sufi Baba Budan from Yemen to India during
the time. Before then, all exported coffee was boiled or otherwise sterilized. Portraits of Baba Budan
depict him as having smuggled seven coffee seeds by strapping them to his chest. The first plants
from these smuggled seeds were planted in Mysore.

In 1583, Leonhard Rauwolf, a German physician, gave this description of coffee after returning from
a ten-year trip to the Near East:

A beverage as black as ink, useful against numerous illnesses, particularly those of

the stomach. Its consumers take it in the morning, quite frankly, in a porcelain cup
passed around and from which each one drinks a cupful. It is composed of water
and the fruit from a bush called bunnu.

— Léonard Rauwolf, Reise in die Morgenländer (in German)

Within the Ottoman Empire, the first coffeehouse opened in 1555 in Tahtakale, Istanbul.[29] Since
Tahtakale is to the West of the Bosporus strait, this would likely have been the first coffee house in
Europe. Thriving trade brought many goods, including coffee, from the Ottoman Empire to Venice.
Coffee became more widely accepted in Europe after it was deemed a Christian beverage by Pope
Clement VIII in 1600, despite appeals to ban the "Muslim drink". Coffee had spread to Italy by 1600
and then to the rest of Europe, Indonesia, and the Americas.[30] The first European coffeehouse
outside of the Ottoman Empire opened in Venice in 1647.[31]

As a colonial import

A late 19th-century A 1919 advertisement for

advertisement for coffee G Washington's Coffee. The
essence inventor George
Washington developed
methods for large scale
commercial manufacture of
instant coffee.

The Dutch East India Company was the first to import coffee on a large scale.[1] The Dutch later
grew the crop in Java and Ceylon.[32] The first exports of Indonesian coffee from Java to the
Netherlands occurred in 1711.[33]

Through the efforts of the British East India Company, coffee became popular in England. In a diary
entry of May 1637, John Evelyn records tasting the drink at Oxford, where it had been brought by a
student of Balliol College from Crete named Nathaniel Conopios of Crete.[34][35] Oxford's Queen's
Lane Coffee House, established in 1654, is still in existence today. Coffee was introduced in France
in 1657 and in Austria and Poland after the 1683 Battle of Vienna, when coffee was captured from
supplies of the defeated Turks.[36]

When coffee reached North America during the Colonial period, it was initially not as successful as
in Europe, as alcoholic beverages remained more popular. During the Revolutionary War, the demand
for coffee increased so much that dealers had to hoard their scarce supplies and raise prices
dramatically; this was also due to the reduced availability of tea from British merchants,[37] and a
general resolution among many Americans to avoid drinking tea following the 1773 Boston Tea
Party.[38]
During the 18th century, coffee consumption declined in Britain, giving way to tea drinking. Tea was
simpler to make and had become cheaper with the British conquest of India and the tea industry
there.[39] During the Age of Sail, seamen aboard ships of the British Royal Navy made substitute
coffee by dissolving burnt bread in hot water.[40] According to Captain Haines, who was the colonial
administrator of Aden (1839–1854), Mokha historically imported up to two-thirds of its coffee from
Berbera-based merchants before the coffee trade of Mokha was captured by British-controlled Aden
in the 19th century. After that, much of the Ethiopian coffee was exported to Aden via Berbera.[41]

Frenchman Gabriel de Clieu took a coffee plant to the French territory of Martinique in the Caribbean
in the 1720s,[42] from which much of the world's cultivated arabica coffee is descended. Coffee
thrived in the climate and was conveyed across the Americas.[43] Coffee was cultivated in Saint-
Domingue (now Haiti) from 1734, and by 1788 it had supplied half the world's coffee.[44] The
conditions that the enslaved people worked in on coffee plantations were a factor in the Haitian
Revolution, and the coffee industry never fully recovered there.[45]

Mass production

The port city Mocha in Yemen 1692.

In the late 16th century, Yemen developed a booming coffee economy. Farmers grew coffee on
mountain terraces above the Tihamah plain, and trade routes linked its ports to Jeddah and Cairo.
By the 17th century, coffee had surpassed the global spice trade.[46] Up to the end of the 17th
century, Yemen was the world's main producer for coffee, and Mocha was the world's largest
shipping port for coffee.[6][47]
 A coffee can from the first half of the 20th
century. From the Museo del Objeto del
Objeto collection.

Meanwhile, coffee had been introduced to Brazil in 1727, although its cultivation did not gather
momentum until independence in 1822.[48] After this time, massive tracts of rainforest were cleared
for coffee plantations, first in the vicinity of Rio de Janeiro and later São Paulo.[49] Brazil went from
having essentially no coffee exports in 1800 to being a significant regional producer in 1830, to
being the largest producer in the world by 1852. Between 1910 and 1920, Brazil exported around
70% of the world's coffee; Colombia, Guatemala, and Venezuela exported 15%; and Old World
production accounted for less than 5% of world exports.[50]

Many countries in Central America took up cultivation in the latter half of the 19th century, and
almost all were involved in the large-scale displacement and exploitation of indigenous people.
Harsh conditions led to many uprisings, coups, and bloody suppression of peasants.[51] The notable
exception was Costa Rica, where a lack of ready labor prevented the formation of large farms.
Smaller farms and more egalitarian conditions ameliorated unrest over the 19th and 20th
centuries.[52]

Rapid growth in coffee production in South America during the second half of the 19th century was
matched by an increase in consumption in developed countries, though nowhere has this growth
been as pronounced as in the United States, where a high rate of population growth was
compounded by doubling of per capita consumption between 1860 and 1920. Though the United
States was not the heaviest coffee-drinking nation at the time (Belgium, the Netherlands and Nordic
countries all had comparable or higher levels of per capita consumption), due to its sheer size, it
was already the largest consumer of coffee in the world by 1860, and, by 1920, around half of all
coffee produced worldwide was consumed in the US.[50]

Coffee has become a vital cash crop for many developing countries. Over 100 million people in
developing countries have become dependent on coffee as their primary source of income. It has
become the primary export and economic backbone for African countries like Uganda, Burundi,
Rwanda, and Ethiopia,[53] as well as many Central American countries.
 Coffee bean production

Biology

Several species of shrub of the genus Coffea produce the berries from which coffee is extracted.
The two main species commercially cultivated are C. canephora (predominantly a form known as
'robusta') and C. arabica.[54] C. arabica, the most highly regarded species, is native to the
southwestern highlands of Ethiopia, the Boma Plateau in southeastern Sudan, and Mount Marsabit
in northern Kenya.[55] C. canephora is native to western and central Subsaharan Africa, from Guinea
to Uganda and southern Sudan.[56] Less popular species are C. liberica, C. stenophylla, C. mauritiana,
and C. racemosa.

All coffee plants are classified in the family Rubiaceae. They are evergreen shrubs or trees that may
grow 5 m (15 ft) tall when unpruned. The leaves are dark green and glossy, usually 10–15 cm (4–
6 in) long and 6 cm (2.4 in) wide, simple, entire, and opposite. Petioles of opposite leaves fuse at the
base to form interpetiolar stipules, characteristic of Rubiaceae. The flowers are axillary, and clusters
of fragrant white flowers bloom simultaneously. Gynoecium consists of an inferior ovary, also
characteristic of Rubiaceae. The flowers are followed by oval berries of about 1.5 cm (0.6 in).[57]
When immature, they are green, and they ripen to yellow, then crimson, before turning black on
drying. Each berry usually contains two seeds, but 5–10% of the berries[58] have only one; these are
called peaberries.[59] Arabica berries ripen in six to eight months, while robusta takes nine to eleven
months.[60]

C. arabica is predominantly self-pollinating, and as a result the seedlings are generally uniform and
vary little from their parents. In contrast, C. canephora and C. liberica are self-incompatible and
require outcrossing. This means that useful forms and hybrids must be propagated vegetatively.[61]
Cuttings, grafting, and budding are the usual methods of vegetative propagation.[62] On the other
hand, there is great scope for experimentation in search of potential new strains.[61]
 C. robusta flowers

A flowering C. arabica tree

Illustration of C. arabica plant

and seeds

C. arabica berries on the bush

Cultivation and production

Map showing areas of coffee cultivation:

r Coffea canephora
m Coffea canephora and Coffea arabica
a Coffea arabica

The traditional method of planting coffee is to place 20 seeds in each hole at the beginning of the
rainy season. This method loses about 50% of the seeds' potential, as about half fail to sprout. A
more effective process of growing coffee, used in Brazil, is to raise seedlings in nurseries that are
then planted outside after six to twelve months. Coffee is often intercropped with food crops, such
as corn, beans, or rice during the first few years of cultivation as farmers become familiar with its
requirements.[57] Coffee plants grow within a defined area between the tropics of Cancer and
Capricorn, termed the bean belt or coffee belt.[63]

In 2020, the world production of green coffee beans was 175,647,000 60 kg bags, led by Brazil with
39% of the total, followed by Vietnam, Colombia, and Indonesia.[64] Brazil is the largest coffee
exporting nation, accounting for 15% of all world exports in 2019.[65] As of 2021, no synthetic coffee
products are publicly available but multiple bioeconomy companies have reportedly produced first
batches that are highly similar on the molecular level and are close to commercialization.[66][67][68]

Species variations

Of the two main species grown, arabica coffee (from C. arabica) is generally more highly regarded
than robusta coffee (from C. canephora). Robusta coffee tends to be bitter and has less flavor but a
better body than arabica. For these reasons, about three-quarters of the coffee cultivated worldwide
is C. arabica.[54] Robusta strains contain about 40–50% more caffeine than arabica.[69]
Consequently, this species is used as an inexpensive substitute for arabica in many commercial
coffee blends. Good quality robusta beans are used in traditional Italian espresso blends to provide
a full-bodied taste and a better foam head (known as crema).

Coffee leaf rust has forced the cultivation

of resistant robusta coffee in many
countries.[70]

Additionally, robusta is less susceptible to disease than arabica and can be cultivated in lower
altitudes and warmer climates where arabica does not thrive.[71] The robusta strain was first
collected in 1890 from the Lomani River, a tributary of the Congo River, and was conveyed from the
Congo Free State (now the Democratic Republic of the Congo) to Brussels to Java around 1900.
From Java, further breeding resulted in the establishment of robusta plantations in many
countries.[70] In particular, the spread of the devastating coffee leaf rust (caused by the fungal
pathogen Hemileia vastatrix) hastened the uptake of the resistant robusta. The pathogen results in
light, rust-colored spots on the undersides of coffee plant leaves.[72] It grows exclusively on the
leaves of coffee plants.[73] Coffee leaf rust is found in virtually all countries that produce coffee.[74]

Beans from different countries or regions can usually be distinguished by differences in flavor,
aroma, body, and acidity.[75] These taste characteristics are dependent on the coffee's growing
region, genetic subspecies (varietals), and processing.[76] Varietals are generally known by the
region in which they are grown, such as Colombian, Java, and Kona. Arabica coffee beans are
cultivated mainly in Latin America, eastern Africa or Asia, while robusta beans are grown in central
Africa, southeast Asia, and Brazil.[54]

Pests and treatments

Fungi

Robusta coffee tree infected by coffee wilt

disease

Coffee wilt disease or tracheomycosis is a common vascular wilt found in Eastern and Central
Africa that can kill coffee trees it infects. It is induced by the fungal pathogen Gibberella xylarioides.
It can affect several Coffea species and could potentially threaten production worldwide.[77] Mycena
citricolor, American leaf spot, is a fungus that can affect the entire coffee plant. It grows on leaves,
resulting in leaves with holes that often fall from the plant. It is a threat primarily in Latin America.[78]
Animals

The coffee borer beetle is a major insect

pest of the world's coffee industry.[79]

Over 900 species of insect have been recorded as pests of coffee crops worldwide. Of these, over a
third are beetles, and over a quarter are bugs. Some 20 species of nematodes, 9 species of mites,
and several snails and slugs also attack the crop. Birds and rodents sometimes eat coffee berries,
but their impact is minor compared to invertebrates.[80] In general, C. arabica is the more sensitive
species to invertebrate predation overall. Each part of the coffee plant is assailed by different
animals. Nematodes attack the roots, coffee borer beetles burrow into stems and woody
material,[81] and the foliage is attacked by over 100 species of larvae of butterflies and moths.[82]

Mass spraying of insecticides has often proven disastrous, as predators of the pests are more
sensitive than the pests themselves.[83] Instead, integrated pest management has been developed,
using techniques such as targeted treatment of pest outbreaks and managing crop environment
away from conditions favoring pests. Branches infested with scale are often cut and left on the
ground, which causes scale parasites to attack the scale on the fallen branches as well as in the
plant.[84]

The 2-mm-long coffee borer beetle (Hypothenemus hampei) is the most damaging insect pest of the
world's coffee industry, destroying up to 50 percent or more of the coffee berries on plantations in
most coffee-producing countries. The adult female beetle nibbles a single tiny hole in a coffee berry
and lays 35 to 50 eggs. Inside, the offspring grow, mate, and then emerge from the commercially
ruined berry to disperse, repeating the cycle. Pesticides are mostly ineffective because the beetle
juveniles are protected inside the berry nurseries, but they are vulnerable to predation by birds when
they emerge. When groves of trees are nearby, the American yellow warbler, rufous-capped warbler,
and other insectivorous birds have been shown to reduce by 50 percent the number of coffee berry
borers in Costa Rica coffee plantations.[79]
Ecological effects

Shade-grown coffee in Guatemala

Originally, coffee was grown in the shade of trees that provided a habitat for many animals and
insects.[85] Remnant forest trees were used for this purpose, but many species have been planted as
well. These include leguminous trees of the genera Acacia, Albizia, Cassia, Erythrina, Gliricidia, Inga,
and Leucaena, as well as the nitrogen-fixing non-legume sheoaks of the genus Casuarina, and the
silky oak Grevillea robusta.[86] This method is commonly called "shade-grown coffee". Starting in the
1970s, many farmers switched their production methods to sun cultivation, in which coffee is grown
in rows under full sun with little or no forest canopy. This causes berries to ripen more rapidly and
bushes to produce higher yields, but the method requires the clearing of trees and increased use of
fertilizer and pesticides, which damage the environment and cause health problems.[87] Unshaded
coffee plants grown with fertilizer yield the most coffee, although unfertilized shaded crops
generally yield more than unfertilized unshaded crops: the response to fertilizer is much greater in
full sun.[88] While traditional coffee production causes berries to ripen more slowly and produce
lower yields, the quality of the coffee is allegedly superior.[89] In addition, the traditional shaded
method provides living space for many wildlife species. Proponents of shade cultivation say
environmental problems such as deforestation, pesticide pollution, habitat destruction, and soil and
water degradation are the side effects of the practices employed in sun cultivation.[85][90] The
American Birding Association, Smithsonian Migratory Bird Center,[91] National Arbor Day
Foundation,[92] and the Rainforest Alliance have led a campaign for 'shade-grown' and organic
coffees, which can be sustainably harvested.[93] Shaded coffee cultivation systems show greater
biodiversity than full-sun systems, and those more distant from continuous forest compare rather
poorly to undisturbed native forest in terms of habitat value for some bird species.[94][95]

Coffee production uses a large volume of water. On average it takes about 140 liters (37 U.S. gal) of
water to grow the coffee beans needed to produce one cup of coffee. Growing the plants needed to
produce 1 kg (2.2 lb) of roasted coffee in Africa, South America or Asia requires 26,400 liters
(7,000 U.S. gal) of water.[96] As with many other forms of agriculture, often much of this is rainwater,
much of which would otherwise run off into rivers or coastlines, while much water actually absorbed
by the plants is transpired back into the local environment through the plants' leaves (especially for
cooling effects); broad estimates aside, consequential margins vary considerably based on details
of local geography and horticultural practice. Coffee is often grown in countries where there is a
water shortage, such as Ethiopia.[97]

Used coffee grounds may be used for composting or as a mulch. They are especially appreciated by
worms and acid-loving plants such as blueberries.[98] Climate change may significantly impact
coffee yields during the 21st century, such as in Nicaragua and Ethiopia which could lose more than
half of the farming land suitable for growing (Arabica) coffee.[99][100][101] As of 2016, at least 34% of
global coffee production was compliant with voluntary sustainability standards such as Fairtrade,
UTZ, and 4C (The Common Code for the Coffee Community).[102]

Preprocessing

Coffee berries are traditionally selectively picked by hand, which is labor-intensive as it involves the
selection of only the berries at the peak of ripeness. More commonly, crops are strip picked, where
all berries are harvested simultaneously regardless of ripeness by person or machine. After picking,
green coffee is processed by one of two types of method—a dry process method which is often
simpler and less labor-intensive, and a wet process method, which incorporates batch fermentation,
uses larger amounts of water in the process, and often yields a milder coffee.[103]

Then they are sorted by ripeness and color, and most often the flesh of the berry is removed, usually
by machine, and the seeds are fermented to remove the slimy layer of mucilage still present on the
seed. When the fermentation is finished, the seeds are washed with large quantities of fresh water
to remove the fermentation residue, which generates massive amounts of coffee wastewater.
Finally, the seeds are dried.[104]

The best (but least used) method of drying coffee is using drying tables. In this method, the pulped
and fermented coffee is spread thinly on raised beds, which allows the air to pass on all sides of the
coffee, and then the coffee is mixed by hand. Drying is more uniform, and fermentation is less likely.
Most African coffee is dried in this manner, and certain coffee farms around the world are starting
to use this traditional method.[104] Next, the coffee is sorted, and labeled as green coffee. Some
companies use cylinders to pump in heated air to dry the coffee seeds, though this is generally in
places where the humidity is very high.[104]
 Kopi luwak, coffee berries that have been
preprocessed by passing through the Asian
palm civet's digestive tract[105]

An Asian coffee known as kopi luwak undergoes a peculiar process made from coffee berries eaten
by the Asian palm civet, passing through its digestive tract, with the beans harvested from feces.
Coffee brewed from this process[105] is among the most expensive in the world, with bean prices
reaching $160 per pound or $30 per brewed cup.[106] Kopi luwak coffee is said to have a uniquely
rich, slightly smoky aroma and flavor with hints of chocolate, resulting from the action of digestive
enzymes breaking down bean proteins to facilitate partial fermentation.[105][106] In Thailand, black
ivory coffee beans are fed to elephants whose digestive enzymes reduce the bitter taste of beans
collected from dung.[107] These beans sell for up to $1,100 a kilogram ($500 per lb), achieving the
world's most expensive coffee,[107] three times costlier than palm civet coffee beans.[106]

Processing

Roasting

Roasted coffee beans

The next step in the process is the roasting of the green coffee. Coffee is usually sold in a roasted
state, and with rare exceptions, such as infusions from green coffee beans,[108] coffee is roasted
before it is consumed. It can be sold roasted by the supplier, or it can be home roasted.[109] The
roasting process influences the taste of the beverage by changing the coffee bean both physically
and chemically. The bean decreases in weight as moisture is lost and increases in volume, causing
it to become less dense. The density of the bean also influences the strength of the coffee and the
requirements for packaging.

The actual roasting begins when the temperature inside the bean reaches approximately 200 °C
(392 °F), though different varieties of seeds differ in moisture and density and therefore roast at
different rates.[110] During roasting, caramelization occurs as intense heat breaks down starches,
changing them to simple sugars that begin to brown, which darkens the color of the bean.[111]

Sucrose is rapidly lost during the roasting process and may disappear entirely in darker roasts.
During roasting, aromatic oils and acids weaken, changing the flavor; at 205 °C (401 °F), other oils
start to develop.[110] One of these oils, caffeol, is created at about 200 °C (392 °F), and is largely
responsible for coffee's aroma and flavor.[32] The difference in caffeine content between a light roast
and a dark roast is only about 0.1%.[112]

Grading roasted beans

Coffee "cuppers", or professional tasters,

grade coffee.

Depending on the color of the roasted beans as perceived by the human eye, they will be labeled as
light, medium light, medium, medium dark, dark, or very dark. A more accurate method of discerning
the degree of roast involves measuring the reflected light from roasted seeds illuminated with a
light source in the near-infrared spectrum. This elaborate light meter uses a process known as
spectroscopy to return a number that consistently indicates the roasted coffee's relative degree of
roast or flavor development. Coffee has, in many countries, been graded by size longer than it has
been graded by quality. Grading is generally done with sieves, numbered to indicate the size of the
perforations.[113]
Roast characteristics

The degree of roast affects coffee flavor and body. The color of the coffee after brewing is also
affected by the degree of roasting.[114] Darker roasts are generally bolder because they have less
fiber content and a more sugary flavor. Lighter roasts have a more complex and therefore perceived
stronger flavor from aromatic oils and acids otherwise destroyed by longer roasting times.[115]
Roasting does not alter the amount of caffeine in the bean but does give less caffeine when the
beans are measured by volume because the beans expand during roasting.[116] A small amount of
chaff is produced during roasting from the skin left on the seed after processing.[117] Chaff is
usually removed from the seeds by air movement, though a small amount is added to dark roast
coffees to soak up oils on the seeds.[110]

Decaffeination

Decaffeination of coffee seeds is done while the seeds are still green. Many methods can remove
caffeine from coffee, but all involve either soaking the green seeds in hot water (often called the
"Swiss water process")[118] or steaming them, then using a solvent to dissolve the caffeine-
containing oils.[32] Decaffeination is often done by processing companies, and the extracted
caffeine is usually sold to the pharmaceutical industry.[32]

Storage

Coffee is best stored in an airtight container made of ceramic, glass or non-reactive metal.[119]
Higher quality prepackaged coffee usually has a one-way valve that prevents air from entering while
allowing the coffee to release gases.[120] Coffee freshness and flavor is preserved when it is stored
away from moisture, heat, and light. The tendency of coffee to absorb strong smells from food
means that it should be kept away from such smells. Storage of coffee in refrigerators is not
recommended due to the presence of moisture which can cause deterioration. Exterior walls of
buildings that face the sun may heat the interior of a home, and this heat may damage coffee stored
near such a wall. Heat from nearby ovens also harms stored coffee.[119]

In 1931, a method of packing coffee in a sealed vacuum in cans was introduced. The roasted coffee
was packed and then 99% of the air was removed, allowing the coffee to be stored indefinitely until
the can was opened. Today this method is in mass use for coffee in a large part of the world.[121]
Preparing the beverage

Brewing

A contemporary electric
automatic drip-coffee maker

Espresso is one of the most popular

coffee-brewing methods. The term
espresso, substituting s for most x letters
in Latin-root words, with the term deriving
from the past participle of the Italian verb
esprimere, itself derived from the Latin
exprimere, means 'to express', and refers to
the process by which hot water is forced
under pressure through ground
coffee.[122][123]

Coffee beans must be ground and brewed to create a beverage. The criteria for choosing a method
include flavor and economy. Almost all methods of preparing coffee require that the beans be
ground and then mixed with hot water long enough to allow the flavor to emerge but not so long as
to draw out bitter compounds. The liquid can be consumed after the spent grounds are removed.
Brewing considerations include the fineness of the grind, how the water is used to extract the flavor,
the ratio of coffee grounds to water (the brew ratio), additional flavorings such as sugar, milk, and
spices, and the technique to be used to separate spent grounds. Optimal coffee extraction occurs
between 91 and 96 °C (196 and 205 °F).[124] Ideal holding temperatures range from 85 to 88 °C (185
to 190 °F) to as high as 93 °C (199 °F), and the ideal serving temperature is 68 to 79 °C (154 to
174 °F).[125]

Coffee beans may be ground with a burr grinder, which uses revolving elements to shear the seed; a
blade grinder cuts the seeds with blades moving at high speed; or a mortar and pestle crushes the
seeds. For most brewing methods a burr grinder is deemed superior because the grind is more
even, and the grind size can be adjusted.[126] The type of grind is often named after the brewing
method for which it is generally used, Turkish grind being the finest, while coffee percolator or
French press are the coarsest. The most common grinds are between these extremes: a medium
grind is used in most home coffee-brewing machines.[127]

Coffee may be brewed by several methods. It may be boiled, steeped, or pressurized. Brewing
coffee by boiling is the earliest method, and Turkish coffee is an example of this method. It is
prepared by grinding or pounding the seeds to a fine powder, then adding it to water and bringing it
to a boil very briefly in a pot called a cezve or, in Greek, a μπρίκι: bríki (from Turkish ibrik). This
produces a strong coffee with a layer of foam on the surface and sediment (which is not meant for
drinking) settling at the bottom of the cup.[1]

Drip brewers and automatic coffeemakers brew coffee using gravity. In an automatic coffeemaker,
hot water drips onto coffee grounds that are held in a paper, plastic, or perforated metal coffee filter,
allowing the water to seep through the ground coffee while extracting its oils and essences. The
liquid drips through the coffee and the filter into a carafe or pot, and the spent coffee grounds are
retained in the filter.[128]

In a coffee percolator, water is pulled under a pipe by gravity, which is then forced into a chamber
above a filter by steam pressure created by boiling. The water then seeps through the grounds, and
the process is repeated until terminated by removing it from the heat, by an internal timer,[129] or by
a thermostat that turns off the heater when the entire pot reaches a certain temperature.

The espresso method forces hot pressurized water through finely-ground coffee.[127] As a result of
brewing under high pressure (typically 9 bar),[130] the espresso beverage is more concentrated (as
much as 10 to 15 times the quantity of coffee to water as gravity-brewing methods can produce)
and has a more complex physical and chemical constitution.[131] A well-prepared espresso has a
reddish-brown foam called crema that floats on the surface.[127] Other pressurized water methods
include the moka pot and vacuum coffee maker. The AeroPress also works similarly, moving a
column of water through a bed of coffee.

Cold brew coffee is made by steeping coarsely-ground beans in cold water for several hours, then
filtering them.[132] This results in a brew lower in acidity than most hot-brewing methods.

Serving

Enjoying coffee in Ottoman Empire.

Painting by unknown artist in the Pera
Museum.

Once brewed, coffee may be served in a variety of ways. Drip-brewed, percolated, or French-
pressed/cafetière coffee may be served as white coffee with a dairy product such as milk or cream,
or dairy substitute, or as black coffee with no such addition. It may be sweetened with sugar or
artificial sweetener. When served cold, it is called iced coffee. Popular iced coffee options include
frappés, iced lattes, or stronger brewed coffee served with ice.[133]

Espresso-based coffee has a variety of possible presentations. In its most basic form, an espresso
is served alone as a shot or short black, or with hot water added, when it is known as Caffè
Americano. A long black is made by pouring a double espresso into an equal portion of water,
retaining the crema, unlike Caffè Americano.[134] Milk is added in various forms to an espresso:
steamed milk makes a caffè latte,[135] equal parts steamed milk and milk froth make a
cappuccino,[134] and a dollop of hot foamed milk on top creates a caffè macchiato.[136] A flat white
is prepared by adding steamed hot milk (microfoam) to two espresso shots;[137] it has less milk than
a latte, but both are varieties of coffee to which the milk can be added in such a way as to create a
decorative surface pattern. Such effects are known as latte art.[138]
Coffee can be incorporated with alcohol to produce a variety of beverages: it is combined with
whiskey in Irish coffee, and it forms the base of alcoholic coffee liqueurs such as Kahlúa and Tia
Maria. Some craft beers have coffee or coffee extracts added to the beer,[139] although porter and
stout beers may have a coffee-like taste solely due to roasted grains.[140]

"Functional coffee"

Coffee can also be blended with ingredients claimed to improve health in a form described as a
"functional coffee" drink.[141] Additions used include mushrooms, of which some of the most
frequently used include lion's mane, chaga, Cordyceps, and reishi.[142] Mushroom coffee has about
half the caffeine of standard coffee.[143] However, drinking mushroom coffee can result in digestive
issues, and high amounts can result in liver toxicity.[143] There is little clinical evidence for the
benefits of mushroom coffee.[144]

"Functional" additions also include protein powder, collagen, and ashwagandha.[141]

Instant coffee

Instant coffee

Many products are sold for the convenience of consumers who do not want to prepare their coffee
or who do not have access to coffeemaking equipment. Instant coffee is dried into soluble powder
or freeze-dried into granules that can be quickly dissolved in hot water.[145] A New Zealand invention
and staple, instant coffee was originally invented in Invercargill in 1890 by food chemist David
Strang.[146] It rapidly gained in popularity in many countries in the post-war period, with Nescafé
being the most popular product.[147] Many consumers determined that the convenience of preparing
a cup of instant coffee more than made up for a perceived inferior taste,[148] although, since the late
1970s, instant coffee has been produced differently in such a way that is similar to the taste of
freshly brewed coffee.[149] Paralleling (and complementing) the rapid rise of instant coffee was the
coffee vending machine invented in 1947 and widely distributed since the 1950s.[150]
Economics

World production Green coffee production

2023, millions of tonnes
In 2023, world production of green coffee beans was 11 million tonnes, led by
Brazil 3.41
Brazil with 31% of the total and Vietnam as a secondary producer (table).
Vietnam 1.96

Indonesia 0.76

Commodity market Colombia 0.68

Ethiopia 0.56

World 11.06

Source: FAOSTAT of the

[151]
United Nations

Coffee prices 1973–2022

Coffee retailing Bag of coffee Bag with ziplock

beans and one-way valve
to prevent mold

Coffee is bought and sold as green coffee beans by roasters, investors, and price speculators as a
tradable commodity in commodity markets and exchange-traded funds. Coffee futures contracts for
Grade 3 washed arabicas are traded on the New York Mercantile Exchange under ticker symbol KC,
with contract deliveries occurring every year in March, May, July, September, and
December.[152][153][154][155] Higher and lower grade arabica coffees are sold through other channels.
Futures contracts for robusta coffee are traded on the London International Financial Futures and
Options Exchange and, since 2007, on the New York Intercontinental Exchange.[156]

Dating to the 1970s, coffee has been incorrectly described by many, including historian Mark
Pendergrast, as the world's "second most legally traded commodity".[157][158] Instead, "coffee was
the second most valuable commodity exported by developing countries," from 1970 to circa
2000.[159] This fact was derived from the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development
Commodity Yearbooks which show "Third World" commodity exports by value in the period 1970–
1998 with crude oil in first place, coffee in second, followed by sugar, cotton, and others. Coffee
continues to be an important commodity export for developing countries, but more recent figures
are not readily available due to the shifting and politicized nature of the category "developing
country".[157] Coffee is one of seven commodities included in the EU Regulation on Deforestation-
free products, which aims to guarantee that the products European Union citizens consume do not
contribute to deforestation or forest degradation worldwide.[160]

International Coffee Day, which is claimed to have originated in Japan in 1983 with an event
organized by the All Japan Coffee Association, takes place on 29 September in several
countries.[161] There are numerous trade associations and lobbying and other organizations
representing the coffee industry.[162][163]

Consumption

Coffee consumption (kg. per capita and year)

Nordic countries are the highest coffee-consuming nations when measured per capita per year, with
consumption in Finland as the world's highest.[164]

1. Finland – 26.45 lb (12.00 kg)

2. Norway – 21.82 lb (9.90 kg)

3. Iceland – 19.84 lb (9.00 kg)

4. Denmark – 19.18 lb (8.70 kg)

5. Netherlands – 18.52 lb (8.40 kg)

6. Sweden – 18.00 lb (8.16 kg)

7. Switzerland – 17.42 lb (7.90 kg)

8. Belgium – 15.00 lb (6.80 kg)

9. Luxembourg – 14.33 lb (6.50 kg)

 10. Canada – 14.33 lb (6.50 kg)

An April 2024, National Coffee Association survey indicated that coffee consumption in the U.S.
reached a 20-year high, with 67% of U.S. adults reporting drinking coffee in the past day. This is a
significant increase compared to 2004 when fewer than half of U.S. adults reported coffee
consumption in the past day. Drip coffee remains the most popular brewing method, but espresso-
based beverages, particularly lattes, espresso shots, and cappuccinos, gained popularity.[165]

Economic impacts

Map of coffee areas in Brazil

Market volatility, and thus increased returns, during 1830 encouraged Brazilian entrepreneurs to
shift their attention from gold to coffee, a crop hitherto reserved for local consumption. Concurrent
with this shift was the commissioning of vital infrastructures, including approximately 7,000 km
(4,300 mi) of railroads between 1860 and 1885. The creation of these railways enabled the
importation of workers, to meet the enormous need for labor. This development primarily affected
the State of Rio de Janeiro, as well as the southern states of Brazil, most notably São Paulo, due to
its favorable climate, soils, and terrain.[166]

Coffee production attracted immigrants in search of better economic opportunities in the early 20th
century. Mainly, these were Portuguese, Italian, Spanish, German, and Japanese nationals. For
instance, São Paulo received approximately 733,000 immigrants in the decade preceding 1900,
whilst only receiving approximately 201,000 immigrants in the six years to 1890. The production
yield of coffee increases. In 1880, São Paulo produced 1.2 million bags (25% of total production), in
1888 2.6 million (40%), and in 1902 8 million bags (60%).[167] Coffee is then 63% of the country's
exports. The gains made by this trade allow sustained economic growth in the country. The four
years between planting a coffee and the first harvest extend seasonal variations in the price of
coffee. The Brazilian government is thus forced, to some extent, to keep strong price subsidies
during production periods.

Fair trade

The concept of fair trade labeling, which guarantees coffee growers a negotiated preharvest price,
began in the late 1980s with the Max Havelaar Foundation's labeling program in the Netherlands. In
2004, 24,222 metric tons (of 7,050,000 produced worldwide) were fair trade; in 2005, 33,991 metric
tons out of 6,685,000 were fair trade, an increase from 0.34% to 0.51%.[168][169] A number of fair
trade impact studies have shown that fair trade coffee produces a mixed impact on the
communities that grow it. Many studies are skeptical about fair trade, reporting that it often
worsens the bargaining power of those who are not part of it. The first fair-trade coffee was an
effort to import Guatemalan coffee into Europe as "Indio Solidarity Coffee".[170]

Since the founding of organizations such as the European Fair Trade Association (1987), the
production and consumption of fair trade coffee has grown as some local and national coffee
chains started to offer fair trade alternatives.[171] For example, in April 2000, after a year-long
campaign by the human rights organization Global Exchange, Starbucks decided to carry fair-trade
coffee in its stores.[172] Since September 2009 all Starbucks espresso beverages in UK and Ireland
are made with Fairtrade and Shared Planet certified coffee.[173]

A 2005 study in Belgium concluded that consumers' buying behavior is not consistent with their
positive attitude toward ethical products. On average 46% of European consumers claimed to be
willing to pay substantially more for ethical products, including fair-trade products such as coffee.
The study found that the majority of respondents were unwilling to pay the actual price premium of
27% for fair trade coffee.[172]

Specialty coffee and new trading relationships

Specialty coffee has driven a desire for more traceable coffee, and as such businesses are offering
coffees that may come from a single origin, or a single lot from a single farm. This can give rise to
the roaster developing a relationship with the producer, to discuss and collaborate on coffee. The
roaster may also choose to cut out the importers and exporters to directly trade with the producer,
or they may "fairly trade", where any third-parties involved in the transaction are thought to have
added value, and there is a high level of transparency around the price, although often there is no
certification to back it up.[174] This process tends to only be done for high-quality products since
keeping the coffee separate from other coffees adds costs, and so only coffee that roasters believe
can command a higher price will be kept separate.[175]

Some coffee is sold through internet auction – much of it is sold through a competition, with
coffees passing through local and international jurors, and then the best coffees being selected to
be bid on. Some estates known for high-quality coffee also sell their coffee through an online
auction. This can lead to increased price transparency since the final price paid is usually
published.[174]

Composition

Brewed coffee made from typical grounds and tap water is 99.4% water and contains 40 mg of
caffeine per 100 ml with no essential nutrients in significant content.[176] Restaurant-brewed
espresso is 97.8% water and contains some dietary minerals, B vitamins, and 212 mg of caffeine
per 100 ml.[177]

Although polyphenols, particularly chlorogenic acid, are present in coffee,[178] there is no evidence
that the polyphenols impart a health benefit or have antioxidant value following ingestion.[179][180]
Overall, coffee components do not pose risks to health and do not provide health effects for adults
consuming about 3–4 cups per day, which would supply 300–400 mg of caffeine per day.[179]

Pharmacology

Skeletal formula of a caffeine molecule

A psychoactive chemical in coffee is caffeine, an adenosine receptor antagonist that is known for
its stimulant effects.[179][181] Coffee also contains the monoamine oxidase inhibitors β-carboline
and harmane, which may contribute to its psychoactivity.[182] In a healthy liver, caffeine is mostly
metabolized by liver enzymes. The excreted metabolites are mostly paraxanthines—theobromine
and theophylline—and a small amount of unchanged caffeine. Therefore, the metabolism of caffeine
depends on the state of this enzymatic system of the liver.[179][183] Coffee has laxative effects,
inducing defecation in some people within minutes of consumption.[184][185][186][187] The specific
mechanism of action and chemical constituents responsible are still unknown, but caffeine is likely
not responsible.[188]

A 2017 review of clinical trials found that drinking coffee is generally safe within usual levels of
intake and is more likely to improve health outcomes than to cause harm at doses of 3–4 cups of
coffee daily. Exceptions include a possible increased risk in women having bone fractures, and a
possible increased risk in pregnant women of fetal loss or decreased birth weight. Results were
complicated by poor study quality, and differences in age, gender, health status, and serving
size.[189]

Coffee is known to have a significant amount of water-soluble dietary fiber (mostly polysaccharides
like galactomannans, arabinogalactans, and melanoidins) compared to other commonly consumed
beverages such as factory orange juice. The amount of dietary fiber ranges from 0.47 to 0.75 g per
100 mL of prepared coffee in a 2007 experiment testing on espresso, drip coffee, and freeze-dried
coffee with the beverage made from freeze-dried containing the highest amount fiber. Given the
popularity of coffee and the low amount of fiber consumed by the average person in many
developed nations, coffee may majorly contribute to the daily dietary fiber consumption for many
people. (For instance, in Spain the mean fiber consumption of 7 grams per day with a moderate
coffee drinker having 3 cups per day points to coffee accounting for 10% of Spanish dietary fiber.)
[190][191][192][193][194][195][196]

Caffeine content

Depending on the type of coffee and method of preparation, the caffeine content of a single serving
can vary greatly.[197][198] The caffeine content of a cup of coffee varies depending mainly on the
brewing method, and also on the coffee variety, such as 40 mg per 100 ml in regular coffee and 212
mg per 100 ml in espresso.[176][177] According to a 1979 analysis, coffee has the following caffeine
content, depending on how it is prepared:[197]

Serving size Caffeine content

Brewed 200 mL (7 US fl oz) 80–135 mg

Drip 200 mL (7 US fl oz) 115–175 mg

Espresso 45–60 mL (11⁄2–2 US fl oz) 100 mg

Caffeine remains stable up to 200 °C (392 °F) and completely decomposes around 285 °C
(545 °F).[199] Given that roasting temperatures do not exceed 200 °C (392 °F) for long and rarely if
ever reach 285 °C (545 °F), the caffeine content of a coffee is not likely changed much by the
roasting process.[200]

Society and culture

Coffee is often consumed alongside (or instead of) breakfast by many at home or when eating out
at diners or cafeterias. It is often served at the end of a formal meal, normally with a dessert, and at
times with an after-dinner mint, especially when consumed at a restaurant or dinner party.[201]

Coffeehouses

Coffee is an important part of Bosnian

culture, and was a major part of its
economy in the past.[202]

Widely known as coffeehouses or cafés, establishments serving prepared coffee or other hot
beverages have existed for over 500 years. The first coffeehouse in Constantinople was opened in
1475 by traders arriving from Damascus and Aleppo.[203]

A contemporary term for a person who makes coffee beverages, often a coffeehouse employee, is a
barista. The Specialty Coffee Association of Europe and the Specialty Coffee Association of
America have been influential in setting standards and providing training.[204]

Break

The coffee break in the United States and elsewhere is a short mid-morning rest period granted to
employees. It originated in the late 19th century in Stoughton, Wisconsin, with the wives of
Norwegian immigrants. The city celebrates this every year with the Stoughton Coffee Break
Festival.[205] In 1951, Time noted that "since the war, the coffee break has been written into union
contracts".[206] The term subsequently became common through a Pan-American Coffee Bureau ad
campaign of 1952 which urged consumers, "Give yourself a Coffee-Break – and Get What Coffee
Gives to You."[207] John B. Watson, a behavioral psychologist who worked with Maxwell House later
in his career, helped to popularize coffee breaks within American culture.[208]

Prohibition and condemnation

The Coffee Bearer, Cairo, an

Orientalist painting by John
Frederick Lewis (1857)

Historically, several religious groups have prohibited or condemned the consumption of coffee. The
permissibility of coffee was debated in the Islamic world during the early 16th century, variously
being permitted or prohibited until it was ultimately accepted by the 1550s.[209] Contention existed
among Ashkenazi Jews as to whether coffee was acceptable for Passover until it was certified
kosher in 1923.[210] Some Christian groups, such as Mormons and Seventh-day Adventists,
discourage the consumption of coffee.[211][212] Because of coffee's association with Muslims, the
Christian Ethiopian Orthodox Church avoided it until the end of the 19th century.[213] Some
Rastafarians also generally avoid coffee.[214]

Furthermore, coffee has been prohibited for political and economic reasons. King Charles II of
England briefly outlawed coffeehouses to quell perceived rebellion.[39] King Frederick the Great
banned it in Prussia, concerned about the price of importing of coffee without production
colonies.[215][216] Sweden prohibited coffee in the 18th century for the same reasons.[217] Coffee has
seldom been prohibited based on its intoxicating effect.[218]
Folklore and culture

There are many stories about coffee and its impact on people and society. The Oromo people would
customarily plant a coffee tree on the graves of powerful sorcerers. They believed that the first
coffee bush sprang up from the tears that the god of heaven shed over the corpse of a dead
sorcerer.[219] Johann Sebastian Bach was inspired to compose the humorous Coffee Cantata, about
dependence on the beverage, which was controversial in the early 18th century.[220]

In the United States, coffee is sometimes called a "cup of Joe". The origin of this phrase is in
dispute; a common story is that in World War I the US Secretary of the Navy Josephus "Joe" Daniels
banned alcohol on navy ships which meant that the strongest drink available aboard the ship was
black coffee. Sailors began referring to coffee as a "cup of Joe" in reference to Daniels. However,
this story may be apocryphal since the first written account of it was in 1930, some 15 years later.
Another explanation is that a formerly popular nickname for coffee, jamoke, from mocha java, was
shortened to Joe. A third origin story is that since coffee is such a commonly consumed beverage, it
is the drink of the average Joe.[221][222][223]

See also

Coffee cup sleeve

Coffee cup

Coffee cupping

Coffee in Japan

Coffee in South Korea

Colombian coffee growing axis

Eight O'Clock Coffee

Khat

List of coffee dishes

List of coffee drinks

List of coffeehouse chains

Sanka

Third-wave coffee
 Viennese coffee house

Footnotes

a. A text extant mainly in Latin quotations whose Arabic original is largely lost, the section on
coffee of which was quoted by Philippe Sylvestre Dufour in 1684

b. The section of which possibly talks about coffee is also only extant in Latin translation.

c. Ibn Sina adds that some instead consider it cold

References

Citations

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ks?id=4O_RAAAAMAAJ) . Tea and Coffee Trade Journal Company.

2. Johns Hopkins University Studies in Historical and Political Science ([Link]

ooks?id=GSw7AAAAIAAJ) . Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. 1967. p. 25.

3. Elzebroek, A. T. G. (2008). Guide to Cultivated Plants ([Link]

XnUVxFQC) . Wallingford, UK: CABI. p. 7. ISBN 978-1-84593-356-2.

4. Weinberg & Bealer 2001, pp. 3–4

5. "History of coffee | Origin, Spread, Ethiopia, Arabia, Facts, & Timeline | Britannica" ([Link]
[Link]/topic/history-of-coffee) . [Link]. Retrieved 7 October 2025. "At
some point, perhaps as late as the 15th century, coffee plants were taken across the Red Sea
to southern Arabia (Yemen) and placed under cultivation. Tradition holds that Sufi monks were
among the first to brew coffee as a beverage and used the stimulation to pray through the
night."

6. "History of coffee | Origin, Spread, Ethiopia, Arabia, Facts, & Timeline | Britannica" ([Link]
[Link]/topic/history-of-coffee) . [Link]. Retrieved 7 October 2025.
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Archived ([Link]
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14. Banesio, Fausto Naironio (1671). De saluberrima potione cahue, seu cafe nuncupata discursus
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lectoris ad eminentiss. ... D. Io. Nicolaum S.R.E. card. . ([Link]
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15. Ibn Sīnā. "92 De buncho". Canon medicinae (in Latin). Vol. 5. "Bunchum quid est? Est res delata
de Iemen. Quidam autem dixerunt quod est de radicibus anigailen; cum antiquatur cadit:
melius est citrinum et leve et boni odoris; album et vero grave est, malum. Est calidum et
siccum in primo; secundum quosdam est frigidum in primo. Confortat membra mundificat
autem et exsiccat humiditates quae sunt sub ea, et facit odorem corporis bonum; abscindit
odorem psilothri. Est bonum stomacho."

16. Sweetser, Heather Marie (2012). A Chapter in the History of Coffee: A Critical Edition and
Translation of Murtaḍā az-Zabı̄dı̄'s Epistle on Coffee (Master's thesis). The Ohio State University.
p. 8.

17. Dufour, Traitez nouveaux et curieux du café, du thé et du chocolat (Lyon, 1684, etc.).
18. Quickel, Anthony T. (2021). "Cairo and Coffee in the Transottoman Trade Network" ([Link]
[Link]/83782069) . Transottoman Matters: 84–85.
doi:10.14220/9783737011686.83 ([Link] .
ISBN 978-3-8471-1168-9. "Thus, Hattox argues that it is possible to conclude,on the basis of no
earlier references in the historical sources, that coffee was first introduced into the Islamicate
lands from Yemen in the mid-fifteenth century."

19. Quickel, Anthony T. (2022). "Cairo and Coffee in the Transottoman Trade Network". In
Arkadiusz Christoph Blaszczyk; Robert Born (eds.). Transottoman Matters. Brill. pp. 84–85. ",
the beans made their way to Yemen, a fact realized by al-Jazı¯rı¯(c. 1558), who was an
important sixteenth-century writer on the topic of coffee."

20. Clarence-Smith, William Gervase; Topik, Steven (16 June 2003). The Global Coffee Economy in
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wC&dq=rasulid+yemen+coffee&pg=PA51) . Cambridge University Press. p. 51. ISBN 978-1-
139-43839-1. "Ethiopian forests, especially to the west of the Great Rift Valley, abound in wild
arabica coffee, but we know very little about the origins of consumption there.¹ Coffee was
probably long picked from the wild, and it was used to an increasing extent from the fourteenth
century by the Islamized peoples of southeastern Ethiopia. The coffee habit diffused to the
Rasulid sultanate in Yemen, which had strong commercial and cultural connections with
Muslim kingdoms in Ethiopia. The consumption of coffee spread first around Aden, Mocha,
and Zabid during the first half of the fifteenth century."

21. Yemen Update: Bulletin of the American Institute for Yemeni Studies ([Link]
books?id=C80MAQAAMAAJ) . The Institute. 2002. p. 39.

22. Waines, David (November 2010). Food Culture and Health in Pre-Modern Muslim Societies (http
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Further reading

Bhanoo, Sindya N. (25 March 2013). "The Secret May Be in the Coffee" ([Link]
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York Times. Retrieved 4 December 2013.

Ganchy, Sally (2009). Islam and Science, Medicine, and Technology ([Link]
msciencemedi0000ganc) . The Rosen Publishing Group. ISBN 978-1-4358-5066-8.

Von Hünersdorff, Richard; Hasenkamp, Holger G. (2002). Coffee : a bibliography : a guide to the
literature on coffee. London: Hünersdorff. ISBN 978-0-9527121-0-7. OCLC 52041916 ([Link]
[Link]/oclc/52041916) .

Jacob, Heinrich Eduard (1998). Coffee: The Epic of a Commodity ([Link]

eepicofcomm00jaco) . Short Hills, NJ: Burford Books. ISBN 978-1-58080-070-9. Retrieved
18 November 2015.

Joffe-Walt, Benjamin; Burkeman, Oliver (16 September 2005). "Coffee trail—from the Ethiopian
village of Choche to a London coffee shop" ([Link]
1608,[Link]) . The Guardian.

Kingston, Lani (2015). How to Make Coffee: The Science Behind the Bean (1st ed.). Lewes: Ivy
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External links

Media related to Coffee at Wikimedia Commons

Quotations related to Coffee at Wikiquote