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Physics Notes

8. Work and Power

Work done = Energy transfer

Mechanical or electrical work is equal to energy transferred.

Work done = force x distance moved by the force in the direction of the force.

W = F d = ∆E
1J = 1Nm

In the example on the right, To

calculate the work done by gravity,
we need to know the vertical
distance, h, because this is the
distance moved in the direction of the
force. If we calculated the work done

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 as weight x distance moved down the
ramp, we would get an answer that
was too large.

To increase power :

Increase the mass of the object, time & distance = constant

Increase the distance of motion, time & mass = constant

Decrease the time for work done (do the work faster), force & distance =
constant.

Power = work done / time take = energy transferred / time taken

p = W /t = ∆E/t
1J /s = 1W
1000W = 1kW and 1000kW = 1MW

% efficiency = (useful power output / power input) x 100

9. The Kinetic Particle Model Of Matter

The distinguishing properties of the three states of matter

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Structure of solids, liquids and gases in terms of arrangement, separation and
motion of the particles.

When smoke particles are observed through a microscope:

Description of motion

Smoke particles show random/ haphazard/ unpredictable movement

Smoke particles show sudden changes of directions/ zig-zag motion

Smoke particles appear/ disappear from view OR go out of/ come into focus.

Explanation of motion

Air molecules collide with smoke particles OR smoke particles collide with /
moved by air molecules.

Air molecules faster

Air molecules move randomly

Air molecules smaller / lighter

Each particle of a solid is strongly bonded to its neighbours. This is because the
forces between particles are strongest when the particles are close together.

In a liquid, the particles are slightly further apart and so the forces between them
are slightly weaker

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 In a gas, the particles are far apart, so that the particles do not attract each other
and can move freely about.

Gas molecules collide with the walls of the container and exert a force on the wall of
the container.

Higher the temperature of a gas, the faster its particles are moving. The particles
will hit the walls more often and with more force. This increases the pressure.

Internal energy is the total energy of all of the particles.

Temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of the individual particles.

A bath of water at 50°C can have the same temperature as a cup of tea, but it has
more internal energy than the cup of tea because it has far more molecules.

Celsius scale have two fixed points:

0°C: the melting point of pure ice at atmospheric pressure

100°C: the boiling point of pure water at atmospheric pressure.

T (K) = ʘ(°C) + 273

The pressure of a gas is caused by molecules of gas hitting the walls, changing
momentum and so exerting a force. The pressure is the force per unit area on the
walls of the container.

pV = constant OR initial pressure x initial volume = final pressure x final

volume.

1P a = N/m2
1atm = 100kP a

10. Thermal Properties of Matter

The increase in volume of a material when its temperature rises.

Red-hot rivet is passed through holes in two metal plates and then hammered until
the end rounded. As the rivet cools, it contracts pulls the two plates together tightly.

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A steel ‘tyre’ can be fitted on to the wheel of a train when the tyre is very hot. It then
cools and contracts, so that it fits tightly on to the wheel.

Bimetallic strip is made of two metals joined firmly

together. When heated one metal expands much
more than the other. The metal that expands more is
on the outside of the curve, because the outer curve
is longer than the inner one. Used in fire alarms and
thermostats (used to control temperature of devices
like ovens and irons.)

Glass containers may crack when hot liquid is placed in them. This is because the
inner surface of the glass expands rapidly, before the thermal energy has passed
through to the outer surface. The force of expansion cracks the glass.

When gas is heated, particles move faster, push with greater force, move further
apart. The gas has expanded. When gas is hot, it expand, its density decreases.
This is why hot air rises.

Solid expands least, liquids expand more than solid, gases expand most.

When a material expands, particles in it have more energy, so they can move
around more and take up more space.

It is difficult for solids to push their neighbouring atoms because of strong

intermolecular forces, so solids don’t expand much.

When a gas is heated, its particles move about more rapidly, and it is easy for them
to push the walls of their container further apart, so that the gas takes up more
space.

Internal energy is a measure of the total energy of all the particles in the object. This
includes both the kinetic energy of the particles and chemical potential energy of the
bonds between them.

A rise in the temperature of an object increases its internal energy.

An increase in temperature of an object is an increase in the average kinetic

energies of all of the particles in the object

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 Specific heat capacity is the energy required per unit mass per unit
temperature increase

Unit of specific heat capacity is j/(kg°C) and its symbol is “c”.

c = ∆E/(m∆ʘ)

During melting and boiling energy must be provided to break bonds. Energy is also
needed to overcome the attraction between the particles.

Melting point of pure water is 0°C. Boiling point of pure water is 100°C. At higher
altitude, water boils at a lower temperature and melts at higher temperature.

In condensation, particles slow down and the particles move close together.

In solidification, or freezing, as the liquid loses energy, its particles slow down and
the bonds holding the particles together re-form.

Not all substances melt or boil when they are heated. some burn, and others
decompose into simpler substances before they have a chance to change state.

Evaporation is the escape of more energetic particles from the surface of a liquid.

During evaporation, most energetic molecules escape from the surface of the liquid,
leaving the less energetic molecules in the liquid, the average energy of the
remaining particles is less, so liquid cools down.

When a liquid evaporates in contact with a surface (e.g. skin), molecules gain
kinetic energy, most energetic molecules evaporate from the surface, taking the
energy from evaporation from the surface. This cools down the surface.

Boiling happens at a precise temperature. Evaporation occurs at all temperature

Boiling happens throughout the liquid. Evaporation only happens at the surface

A boiling liquid bubbles. a liquid can evaporate without bubbles.

To increase the rate of evaporation:

1. Increase the temperature → as the temperature increase molecules gain kinetic

energy. Greater average kinetic energy. More of the particles will have enough
energy to escape. So rate of evaporation increase.

2. Increase the surface area → more of the particles are close to the surface, and so
they can escape more easily. So rate of evaporation increase.

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3. Blowing air across the surface → Draught is moving air. When particles escape
from the water, they are blown away so that they cannot fall back in to the water. So
rate of evaporation increase.

11. Thermal Energy Transfers

When a rod is heated, the atoms are vibrating much more at the hot end than they
are at the cold end. As the atoms vibrate, they collide with their neighbours. This
process results in each atom sharing its energy with its neighbouring atoms. The
collisions gradually transfer energy from the atoms at the hot end to those at the
cold end.

In metals, electrons are free to move (they are delocalised). At the hotter end,
electrons gain energy, move through the lattice, collide with distant atoms and
transfer energy.

In liquids particles are in close contact with one another. However, as the particles
are free to move, vibrations are not passed on as easily as in a solid.

The particles in gases are very spread out, making gases very poor conductors of
thermal energy.

There are many solids that conduct thermal energy better than thermal insulators
but do so less well than good thermal conductors.

Convection is an important method of thermal energy transfer in liquids and gases.

Convection doesn't happen in solids as the particles are in fixed position so they
cannot flow.

When water is heated using a Bunsen burner, water above the flame expands.
Expansion means an increase in volume while the mass stays constant. this means
that density decrease. So now its density is less than the that of the surrounding
water, and it floats upwards. Colder water at the top, which is more dense, skins
and replaces it.

In convection, energy is transferred through a

material from a warmer place to a cooler place

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by the movement of the material itself.

In a refrigerator, cold air sinks from the freezing

compartment. If the freezer was at the bottom,
cold air would remain there, and the food at the
top would not be cooled.

Thermal radiation is infrared radiation and all objects emit this radiation.

Thermal energy transfer by thermal radiation does not require a medium.

For an object to be at a constant temperature it needs to transfer energy away from

the object at the same rate that it receives energy.

infrared radiation:

is produced by warm or hot objects

is a form of electromagnetic radiation

travels through empty space (and through air) in the form of waves

travels in straight lines

warms the object that absorbs it

is invisible to the naked eye

can be detected by nerve cells in the skin

If the rate at which an object receives energy is less than the rate at which it
transfers energy away its temperature decreases.

If the rate at which an object receives energy is more than the rate at which it
transfers energy away its temperature increase.

A surface that is a good reflector is a poor absorber and poor emitter.

A surface that is a poor reflector is a good absorber and good emitter.

Shiny or white surfaces are the best reflectors, so worst absorber and worst emitter.

Matte black surfaces are the worst reflectors, so best absorber and best emitter.

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Any object which is hotter than its surrounding(higher surface temperature) radiates
more energy per second than it absorbs and so will cool down.

Any object which is cooler than its surrounding(lower surface temperature) absorbs
more energy per second than it radiates and so will heat up.

An object with a large surface area emits thermal energy at faster rate.

Methods of retaining energy in a house in cold climate:

Thick curtains, draught excluders → stops convection currents, and so prevents

thermal energy transfer.

Loft and underfloor insulating materials → prevents conduction of thermal

energy through floors and ceilings.

Double and triple glazing of windows → vacuum between glass panes cuts out
losses or gain by conduction and convection.

Cavity walls → reduces thermal energy loss or gain by conduction.

Foam or rockwool in wall cavity → further reduce thermal energy transfer by

convection.

Working of vacuum flasks:

Glass is generally used, because

glass is a good insulator.

Air is removed from the gap

between the double walls,
creating a vacuum. This reduces
losses by conduction and
convection because both of them
need a material to travel through.
The stopper is made of plastic and it
The silver coating on the glass
prevents losses by convection and
induces losses by radiation by
evaporation.
reflecting any infrared inflation.

Radiator of car uses the following

features:

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 Specific heat capacity: water
flows around the block to absorb
thermal energy. Water is a good
choice as it has a very high
specific heat capacity.

Convection: as the water is

heated, a convection current
flows in the direction shown by
Conduction: the radiator has metal
the arrows. The pump is used to
fins so the thermal energy is
speed up this flow.
conducted to all parts of the radiator.
Radiation: the fins have a large
surface area and are black to
increase the rate of thermal
energy radiation.

The Sun’s radiation warms the Earth. The warm Earth emits some infrared
radiation. Gases in the Earth’s atmosphere, such as carbon dioxide, absorb some of
this thermal energy and this warms our atmosphere. This is the greenhouse effect.

Warm air rises above the Equator, and colder air sinks in subtropical areas. This
creates the pattern of trade winds that are experienced in the tropics.

Ocean currents help to spread thermal energy from equatorial regions to cooler
parts of the Earth’s surface. Warm water at the surface of the sea flows towards the
poles. In polar regions, colder water sinks and flows back towards the Equator.
Provided this pattern remains constant, this helps to make temperate regions of the
world more habitable.

12. Sound
Sound waves are longitudinal.

The approximate range of frequencies audible to humans as 20 Hz to 20 000 Hz.

A medium is needed to transmit sound waves.

The speed of sound in air is approximately 330–350 m/s.

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 If amplitude increase loudness increase. If amplitude decrease then loudness
decrease.

If frequency increase pitch increase. If frequency decrease pitch decrease.

Echo is a reflection of sound.

Ultrasound is sound wave with frequency greater than 20kHz.

Compressions are regions of high pressure where particles are close together.

Rarefaction are region of low pressure where particles are far apart.

In general, sound travels faster in solids than in liquids and faster in liquids than in
gases.

Making sound waves require a vibrating source. Vibrating sources cause the air
around them to vibrate. These vibrations are passed through the air to our ears
where they cause the eardrum to vibrate and we hear sound.

Sonar is used to measure the depth of water.

A pulse of ultrasound is sent down form the boat are reflects from the seabed. Time
taken for reflected pulse to reach boat is measured. This is used to calculate the
speed of sound in water.

13. Light
Normal → the line drawn at right angles to a surface at the point where a ray hits
the surface.

Angle of incidence → the angle between the incident ray and the normal drawn at
the point where the ray hits the surface.

Angle of reflection → the angle between the reflected ray and the normal drawn at
the point where the ray hits the surface.

Angle of rarefaction → the angle between a refracted ray and the normal to the
surface at the point where it passes from one medium to another.

Critical angle → the minimum angle of incidence at which total internal reflection
occurs.

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Refractive index (n) → is the ratio of the speeds of a wave in two different regions.

Characteristics of image formed by a plane mirror → same size, same distance

from the mirror, virtual.

For reflection, angle of incidence = angle of reflection.

n = sin(i)/sin(r)
n = 1/sin(c)
In optic fibers, signals/ messages are encoded in pulses. Pulses travel down the
optic fiber by total internal reflection. Pulses are received at the other end. They are
decoded.

Converging lens are fatter in the middle than at the edges.

Diverging lens are thinner in the middle than at the edges.

principal axis → the line passing through the centre of a lens perpendicular to its
surface

principal focus/focal point → the point on the principal axis where rays of light
parallel to the principal axis converge after passing through a converging lens

focal length → the distance from the centre of the lens to its principal focus

A virtual image is formed when diverging rays are extrapolated backwards and does
not form a visible projection on a screen.

Diagram of magnifying lens:

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Long sightedness is
when near objects are
blurry. Image is formed
behind the retina.
Converging lens are
used.

Short sightedness is
when far objects are
blurry. Image if formed
in front of the retina.
Diverging lens are
used.

Dispersion occurs because each colour is refracted by a different amount.

Violet light slows down the most, and so it is refracted the most. Red light is least
affected.

Red travels fastest in a prism. Violet travel slowest in prism.

In a prism, frequency remain constant, wavelength decrease, speed decrease, so

dispersion occurs.

Colours of rainbow in order from increasing frequency and decreasing wavelength

→ Red (Richard), Orange (Of), Yellow (York), Green (Gave), Blue (Battle), Indigo
(In), Violet (Vain).

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 Visible light of a single frequency is described as monochromatic.

14. Properties of Waves

Waves transfer energy without transferring the matter itself.

Wave motion illustrated by spring is longitudinal waves. Wave motion illustrated by

rope is transverse wave. Water waves are also transverse waves.

v=fλ

For a transverse wave, the direction of vibration is at right angles to the direction of
propagation and the electromagnetic radiation, water waves and seismic S-waves
(secondary) can be modelled as transverse.

For a longitudinal wave, the direction of vibration is parallel to the direction of

propagation and the sound waves and seismic P-waves (primary) can be modelled
as longitudinal

If the gap size = wavelength, then diffraction is maximum. If gap size increase and
wavelength is constant then less diffraction and vise versa.

If the wavelength increase then there is more diffraction

15. The electromagnetic spectrum

Roman(Radio) → men(Microwave) → invented(Infrared) → very(Visible) →
unusual(Ultraviolet → x-ray(X-ray) → guns(Gamma rays). This is in order of

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decreasing wavelength and increasing frequency.

Electromagnetic waves travel at the same speed in vacuum and air.

Use of different regions of electromagnetic spectrum :

radio waves: radio and television transmissions, astronomy, radio frequency

identification (RFID)

microwaves: satellite television, mobile phones (cell phones), microwave

ovens

infrared: electric grills, short range communications such as remote controllers

for televisions, intruder alarms, thermal imaging, optical fibres

visible light: vision, photography, illumination

ultraviolet: security marking, detecting fake bank notes, sterilising water

X-rays: medical scanning, security scanners

gamma rays: sterilising food and medical equipment, detection of cancer and
its treatment

Harmful effects on people of excessive exposure to electromagnetic radiation,

including:

microwaves: internal heating of body cells

infrared: skin burns

ultraviolet: damage to surface cells and eyes, leading to skin cancer and eye
conditions

X-rays and gamma rays: mutation or damage to cells in the body

Communication with artificial satellites is mainly by microwaves:

some satellite phones use low orbit artificial satellites

some satellite phones and direct broadcast satellite television use geostationary
satellites

Mobile phones (cell phones) and wireless internet use microwaves because
microwaves can penetrate some walls and only require a short aerial for
transmission and reception

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 Bluetooth uses radio waves because radio waves pass through walls but the signal
is weakened on doing so.

Optical fibres (visible light or infrared) are used for cable television and high-speed
broadband because glass is transparent to visible light and some infrared; visible
light and short wavelength infrared can carry high rates of data.

Sound can be transmitted as a digital or analogue signal.

Benefits of digital signaling:

increased rate of transmission of data

increased range due to accurate signal regeneration

16. Magnetism
Induced magnetism → The process where any unmagnetized object gains
temporary magnetic capabilities when it is put inside the magnetic field of any
magnet.

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Substances that are attracted by a magnet are called magnetic substances.
Example: Iron, cobalt, nickel, etc.

Substances that are not attracted by a magnet are called non-magnetic materials.
Example: Aluminium, copper, wood, etc.

Magnetic field is a region in which a magnetic pole experiences a force.

The direction of a magnetic field at a point is the direction of the force on the N pole
of a magnet at that point.

To plot magnetic field around bar magnet → Place a magnet under a stiff sheet
of plain paper or (preferably) clear plastic. Sprinkle filings over the paper or plastic.
Tap the paper or plastic to allow the filings to move slightly so that they line up in the
field. Draw the magnetic field lines. use a plotting compass to know the direction of
the magnetic field. The compass points in the direction of the magnetic field.

Magnetic forces are due to interactions between magnetic fields. When two bar
magnets are placed close together their magnetic fields interact (affect each other)
and produce a new pattern of magnetic lines of force. From these patterns, it is
possible to say whether the magnets will attract or repel.

The relative strength of a magnetic field is represented by the spacing of the

magnetic field lines. The closer the field lines the stronger the magnetic field.

To increase the strength of a

electromagnet:

add more turns to the coil

increase the current

use a soft iron core

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17. Static electricity
Like charges repel and unlike charges attract.

Charging of solids by friction involves only a transfer of negative charge (electrons).

Positive charges (protons) do not move.

In electrical conductors mobile electrons can move through the solids and carry the
current. In electrical non conductors electrons can not move and cannot carry the
current.

Charge is measured in coulombs.

Electric field is a region in which an electric charge experiences a force.

The direction of an electric field at a point is the direction of the force on a positive
charge at that point.

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18. Electrical quantities
Electric current is related to the flow of charge.

Ammeters are connected in series.

In metals electrons can move through the lattice and carry the electrical current.

Definition → Electric current is the charge passing a point per unit time; I = Q/t
Conventional current is from positive to negative and that the flow of free electrons
is from negative to positive.

Definition → electromotive force (e.m.f.) is the electrical work done by a source in

moving a unit charge around a complete circuit.

e.m.f. is measured in volts (V).

Definition → potential difference (p.d.) is the work done by a unit charge passing
through a component.

p.d. between two points is measured in volts (V).

Voltmeter is used in parallel with the component.

E = W /Q e.m.f = work done/ charge

V = W /Q p.d = work done/ charge

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 R = V /I
resistance is directly proportional to length

resistance is inversely proportional to cross-sectional area

In a filament lamp, at first, when the voltage and current are small, the lamp
behaves like an ohmic resistor. However, as the voltage increases, the current
causes the filament to get hot and glow brightly. At high temperatures, the filament
has a higher resistance and so the current does not increase as rapidly as it would
do if the filament had remained cool.

electric circuits transfer energy from a source of electrical energy, such as an

electrical cell or mains supply, to the circuit components and then into the
surroundings.

P = IV
E = IV t

19. Electrical circuits

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Current at every point in a series circuit is the same.

To calculate the combined emf of a source just add them up.

To calculate the combined resistance of a circuit in series just add them up.

For a parallel circuit, the current from the source is larger than the current in each
branch.

The combined resistance of two resistors in parallel is less than that of either
resistor by itself.

Advantage of connecting lamps in parallel:

if one lamp fail the other lamps will continue working.

every lamp can have its own switch.

The sum of the currents entering a junction in a parallel circuit is equal to the sum of
the currents that leave the junction because current is flow of electrons and
electrons can not just disappear in air.

The total p.d. across the components in a series circuit is equal to the sum of the
individual p.d’s across each component.

The p.d. across an arrangement of parallel resistances is the same as the p.d.
across one branch in the arrangement of the parallel resistances.

Resistance in parallel = 1/R = 1/R1 + 1/R2

The p.d. across an electrical conductor increases as its resistance increases for a
constant current.

The equation for two resistors used as a potential divider

When insulation is damaged, exposed metal parts may become energized if live
wires contact one another.

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 If an excessive current flows in a wires. It will overheat and the insulation may melt,
causing it to emit poisonous fumes or even catch fire.

In damp conditions the water can conduct electricity. If your are in contact you may
provide a conductive path for current to flow from a live wire through you to earth.
This could prove fatal.

Block adapters do not usually contain fuse so there is an increased danger that a
current will exceed the rating of the wall socket. Overloading the socket in this way
increases the chance that it will draw excess current, and the plug, will heat up and
catch fire.

A mains circuit consists of a live wire (line wire), a neutral wire and an earth wire.

A switch on the electrical appliance must be connected to the live wire. If it was
connected to either the neutral wire or the earth wire, a current could still pass into
the appliance even if the switch was open (off) and this could lead to a fire or to
somebody being electrocuted if they touched a faulty appliance.

Fuse stop excess current flowing through a circuit. A fuse contains a thin section of
wire, designed to melt and break if the current gets above a certain value. The
thicker the wire used for the fuse, the higher the current that is needed to make it
melt (or blow).

The current rating of the fuse should be just above the value of the current that
flows when the appliance is operating normally.

A fuse without an earth wire protects the circuit and the cabling for a double-
insulated appliance.

When the electric circuit for an electrical appliance is placed inside a case made
from an electrical insulator so that it is impossible for a live wire to touch the outer
casing so there is no need for earthing in this case.

20. Electromagnetic forces.

A conductor moving across a magnetic field or a changing magnetic field linking
with a conductor can induce an e.m.f. in the conductor.

Factors that affect the magnitude of induced emf:

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 1. Magnetic strength of the core in the coil of wire. (stronger --> bigger emf)

2. Number of turns of wire in the coil (more turns --> bigger emf)

3. The cross-sectional area of the coil (bigger area --> bigger emf). (This could
also be seen as the angle you point the magnet at the coil, because flux linkage
is basically the same as flux cutting.)

4. How fast you move the magnet into/out of the coil. (Faster --> bigger emf)

The direction of an induced e.m.f. opposes the change causing it.

To find the direction of magnetic fields in a straight current carrying conductor use
the right hand grip rule.

Inside the coil the field lines run parallel to each other showing that the field is
uniform (its strength is constant)

When field lines are close together the strength is stronger and vise versa.

If current is increased field lines come closer, strength increase. If current is

reversed the direction of magnetic field decrease.

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A relay is used to make a small current switch a larger current on and off

A current flows through the coil,

which produces a magnetic field
around the coil. This magnetic field
interacts with the field between the
poles of the (permanent) magnet.
This produces a force, the direction
of which is given by Fleming’s left-
hand rule. On the left, the force will
be down the page. On the right, it will Therefore the coil moves down. The
also be down the page (because, current through the coil is alternating. As
although the direction of the current the current changes direction, so does
flow is reversed, so is the direction of the force on each side of the coil. This
the magnetic field between the poles makes the coil vibrate. This makes the
of the magnet). diaphragm (attached to the coil) vibrate.
This makes a series of compressions and

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 rarefactions in the air. Making a sound
wave.

Flemings left hand rule can be used with motors.

21. Electromagnetic Induction

As the coil rotates, each side of the coil passes first the magnetic north pole and
then the south pole. This cuts the field lines. When the coil is horizontal, it cuts
through the field lines inducing a voltage. As it turns to vertical, it cuts fewer field
lines so the voltage decreases to zero. As it continues back to horizontal it cuts
through the field lines in the opposite direction, giving a peak voltage in the opposite
direction.

Slip rings: a device used to allow current to flow to and from the coil of an a.c.
generator

Alpha particle deflect towards the negatively charged plate. Beta particle deflect
towards the positively charged plate. Gamma rays do not deflect at all.

Transformer number of turn equation

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 Power loss equation → P = I2R
Ip Vp = Is Vs
As the voltage increase the current decrease. Using the power loss equation as the
current decrease the power loss decrease.

22. The nuclear atom

An atom in consist of a positively charged nucleus and negatively charged electrons
in orbit around the nucleus.

Atoms may form positive ions by losing electrons or form negative ions by gaining
electrons.

Evidence provided by scattering alpha particle gold foil experiment:

a very small nucleus surrounded by mostly empty space

a nucleus containing most of the mass of the atom

a nucleus that is positively charged

Nucleus of an atom contains protons and neutrons.

Relative charges of protons, neutrons and electrons are +1, 0 and –1 respectively.

Proton number → number of protons in the nucleus of an atom.

Nucleon number → number of proton + neutron in the nucleus of an atom.

Isotopes are the atoms of the same element, have the same proton number but
different neutron/ nucleon number.

An element may have more than one isotope.

Nuclear fission is splitting of nuclei to release energy. Occur in nuclear reactor at

earth.

Nuclear fusion is the joining of hydrogen nuclei to form helium nuclei and release
energy. Occurs in the sun.

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23. Radioactivity
Background radiation → the radiation from the environment to which we are
exposed all the time/ it is present all the time.

Sources of radiation:

a. radon gas (in the air)

b. rocks and buildings

c. food and drink

d. cosmic rays

Ionising nuclear radiation can be measured using a detector connected to a counter.

Count rate is measured in count / second or count / minutes.

Correct count rate due to a source = count rate - background radiation.

Emission of radiation from a nucleus is spontaneous and random in direction.

Alpha are highly ionising. Beta are moderately ionising. Gamma are least ionising.

Alpha → 2+; Beta → -1; Gamma → 0

Alpha is least penetrating. Beta is moderately penetrating. Gamma is highly

penetrating.

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Consider an alpha-particle passing through the air. An alpha-particle is the slowest
moving of all the three radiations and has the largest charge. As the alpha-particle
collides with an air molecule, it may knock an electron from the air molecule, so that
it becomes charged. The alpha-particle loses a little of its energy. It must ionise
thousands of molecules before it loses all of its energy and comes to a halt, alpha-
radiation is the most strongly ionising radiation.

Radioactive decay is a change in an unstable nucleus that can result in the

emission of α-particles or β-particles and/or γ-radiation and these changes are
spontaneous and random.

During α-decay or β-decay, the nucleus changes to that of a different element

Isotopes of an element may be radioactive due to an excess of neutrons in the

nucleus and/or the nucleus being too heavy.

After emission, the nucleus of the radioactive isotope becomes more stable and
reduce in the number of excess electrons.

During β emission, neutron ⇒ proton + electron.

Half life → the time taken for half the nuclei of that isotope in any sample to decay.

Working of smoke alarm:

Radiation from the source falls on a detector. Since alpha-radiation is charged,

a small current flows in the detector. The output from the processing circuit is
off, so the alarm is silent.

When smoke enters the gap between the source and the detector, it absorbs
the alpha radiation. Now no current flows in the detector, and the processing
circuit switches on, sounding the alarm.

Alpha is chosen because it is easily absorbed by the smoke.

Thickness measurement:

Beta particles are used. Beta particles are directed through the material. The
radiation is detected by the detector on the other end.

If the material is too thick, the radiation level will be low and an automatic
control system adjusts the thickness.

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 Beta-radiation is used in this application because alpha-radiation would be
absorbed entirely by the paper, plastic or aluminium.

Gamma rays are used in fault detection in sewage pipes.

Gamma rays are used in cancer treatment. A source of y-rays (or X-rays) is directed
at the tumour that needs to be destroyed. The source moves around the patient,
always aiming at the tumour. In this way, other tissues receive only a small dose of
radiation.

Gamma rays are used in food irradiation. Intense gamma rays can kill single celled
bacteria or organism in the food.

In sterilisation of medical equipment gamma rays are used. Equipment is packed in

plastic bags and then exposed to gamma rays. gamma rays are used because it
can pass through thick equipment making sure all parts are sterilised.

Gamma rays are used in diagnosis of some diseases too. Radioactive chemicals
are taken in that release gamma rays. It is detected by detector. Higher count rate
where there is a blockage of blood. Gamma rays are used because its source have
a relatively short half life of about 6 hours, but this is long enough for the
investigation.

Ionising radiation can cause, death of cells, mutation and cancer.

Radioactive sources are kept in lead lined wooden boxes. lead absorbs all the
radiation

Radiation suits are worn in radioactive areas.

Radiographers operate equipment from a separate room, to reduce exposure time.

Tweezers/ tongs are used to handle radioactive sources to increase distance

between source and living tissue.

24. Earth and The Solar System

Earth is a planet that rotates on its axis, which is tilted, once in approximately 24
hours.

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The side of the Earth facing the Sun experiences daylight whilst the other side is in
darkness. As the Earth turns, Sun appears directly overhead at midday. As the
Earth continues to turn, the spot moves out of the direct sunlight until, at sunset, the
Sun appears to slip below the western horizon.

Earth orbits the Sun once in approximately 365 days.

Countries at the Equator do not experience seasons because the Sun’s rays always
hit them at the same angle.

It takes approximately one month for the Moon to orbit the Earth.

The Moon revolves around its own axis in a month so always has the same side
facing the Earth at all times. We never see the hemisphere that is always facing
away from Earth, although astronauts have orbited the Moon and satellite have
photographed it.

The Moon shines with reflected light from the Sun, it does not produce its own light.

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In the New Moon phase:

The Moon is between the Earth and the Sun. Therefore, the sunlight is only on
the opposite face of the Moon to the Earth. This means the Moon is unlit as
seen from Earth, so it is not visible.

At the Full Moon phase:

The Earth is between the Moon and the Sun. The side of the Moon that is
facing the Earth is completely lit by the sunlight. This means the Moon is fully lit
as seen from Earth.

In between, a crescent can be seen where the Moon is partially illuminated from
sunlight.

Average orbital speed = (2π x avg. radius) / Time

v = 2πr/T

Solar System contains:

one star, the Sun

eight planets, Mercury (My), Venus (Very), Earth(Elegant), Mars (Mother),

Jupiter (Just), Saturn (Served), Uranus (Us), Neptune (Noodles).

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 minor dwarf planets, like Pluto and Eris.

asteroids in asteroids belts between Mars and Jupiter.

moons, that orbit the planets.

comets, which are giant snowballs, orbit the Sun in very irregular orbits. When
they are furthest from the Sun, they are frozen balls of gas, rock and dust. As
they get near the Sun they heat up, ice melts and leave a trail of dust and gas
behind them. They have highly elliptical orbits.

Minor planets and comets have elliptical orbits, and the Sun is not at the centre of
the elliptical orbit, except when the orbit is approximately circular.

The four planets nearest to the Sun are rocky and small and the four planets
furthest from the Sun are gaseous and large.

The Solar System began as a nebula, which is a huge swirling ball of dust and gas.
Most of this gas was hydrogen, but there were also other elements formed by fusion
in other stars, which had exploded at the end of their life cycle, sending their
contents out into the clouds of interstellar gas. As gravity pulled this mass together,
the centre formed a star. The planets formed from the materials of the nebula which
were not pulled into the Sun. The spinning motion of the dust and gas formed a flat,
spinning ring disc known as an accretion disc. Gravity pulled dust and gas together
so they joined to make rocks which then join to make larger rocks. The process of
the dust and gas being pulled together by gravity is called accretion and it led to the
formation of the inner, rocky planets. The intense heat forced some of the lighter
materials further away and these formed the outer planets-the gas giants.

Orbital distance is the distance from from the sun to the planet

Orbital duration is the time taken for a planet to complete one revolution around the
sun relative to earth. Earths orbital duration is 1 year, Jupiter’s orbital duration is 12
years.

Strength of the gravitational field at the surface of a planet depends on the mass of
the planet.

Strength of the gravitational field around a planet decreases as the distance from
the planet increases.

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 The Sun contains most of the mass of the Solar System and this explains why the
planets orbit the Sun.

The force that keeps an object in orbit around the Sun is the gravitational attraction
of the Sun.

The strength of the Sun’s gravitational field decreases and the orbital speeds of the
planets decrease as the distance from the Sun increases.

An object in an elliptical orbit travels faster when closer to the Sun because when
an orbiting object is at its closest to the Sun, it has its maximum kinetic energy and
minimum gravitational potential energy. When it is furthest from sun it has its
maximum gravitational potential energy and minimum kinetic energy.

Speed of light is 3.0 ∗ 108 m/s.

25. Stars and The Universe

Sun is a star of medium size, consisting mostly of hydrogen and helium, and it
radiates most of its energy in the infrared, visible and ultraviolet regions of the
electromagnetic spectrum.

Stars are powered by nuclear reactions that release energy and in stable stars the
nuclear reactions involve the fusion of hydrogen into helium.

Galaxies are each made up of many billions of stars.

The Sun is a star in the galaxy known as the Milky Way.

Other stars that make up the Milky Way are much further away from the Earth than
the Sun is from the Earth.

Astronomical distances can be measured in light-years, where one light-year is the

distance travelled in (the vacuum of) space by light in one year.

one light-year is equal to 9.5 × 10^15m.

Life cycle of a Star :

a star is formed from interstellar clouds of gas and dust that contain hydrogen.

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 a protostar is an interstellar cloud collapsing and increasing in temperature as a
result of its internal gravitational attraction.

a protostar becomes a stable star when the inward force of gravitational

attraction is balanced by an outward force due to the high temperature in the
centre of the star.

all stars eventually run out of hydrogen as fuel for the nuclear reaction.

most stars (mass ≤ 8 solar masses) expand to form red giants and more
massive stars (mass > 8 solar masses) expand to form red super-giants when
most of the hydrogen in the centre of the star has been converted to helium.

a red giant from a less massive star forms a planetary nebula with a white dwarf
star at its centre. then this white dwarf forms a black dwarf.

a red supergiant explodes as a supernova, forming a nebula containing

hydrogen and new heavier elements, leaving behind a neutron star or a black
hole at its centre.

the nebula from a supernova may form new stars with orbiting planet.

Milky Way is one of many billions of galaxies making up the Universe and the
diameter of the Milky Way is approximately 100000 light-years.

Redshift is an increase in the observed wavelength of electromagnetic radiation

emitted from receding stars and galaxies.

The light emitted from distant galaxies appears redshifted in comparison with light
emitted on the Earth.

Redshift in the light from distant galaxies is evidence that the Universe is expanding
and supports the Big Bang Theory.

Microwave radiation of a specific frequency is observed at all points in space

around us and is known as cosmic microwave background radiation (CMBR).

The CMBR was produced shortly after the Universe was formed and this radiation
has been expanded into the microwave region of the electromagnetic spectrum as
the Universe expanded.

The speed v at which a galaxy is moving away from the Earth can be found from the
change in wavelength of the galaxy’s starlight due to redshift.

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The distance of a far galaxy d can be determined using the brightness of a
supernova in that galaxy.

Hubble constant H0 is the ratio of the speed at which the galaxy is moving away
from the Earth to its distance from the Earth.

H0 = v/d
The current estimate for H0 is 2.2 × 10^ (–18) per second.

The equation: d/v = 1/H0 , represents an estimate for the age of the Universe
and that this is evidence for the idea that all the matter in the Universe was present
at a single point.

When current pass through galvanometer it shows deflection in the direction of

convectional current.

Circuit breaker, earth wire and fuse are all designed to improve the safe working of
a mains electrical supply.

Decreasing the surface area of an object in liquid doesn’t increase or decrease the
pressure of liquid on that object.

For TIR to take place light must travel from denser medium to rarer medium.

Both fuse and circuit breakers are connected in series.

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Chemical energy is stored in batteries which is then converted to electrical energy.

Electrical shock is the greatest hazard from uninsulated wires.

Fuse and switches are both connected to the live wire.

Speed of wave does not change during diffraction.

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