📘 Chapter 2: Self and Personality

🔹 Concept of Personality

 Derived from Latin “persona” = mask used in theatre.

 For common people → personality = outer looks (handsome, beautiful).

 For psychologists → personality = unique, stable patterns of behaviour, thought, and

emotion that remain fairly consistent.

 Features:

1. Has both physical & psychological components.

2. Unique for every person.

3. Stable over time, but dynamic (adapts to situations).

Example: A shy person may stay quiet in class, but still be polite and consistent across
situations.

Keywords: Personality = consistent + unique + adaptive.

Q (Small): Define personality in psychology.

A: Personality is the unique, stable, and consistent patterns of behaviour, thought, and emotion
that characterise an individual.

Q (Big): What are the main features of personality?

A: Personality has physical & psychological components, is unique, stable over time, and
adaptive to situations.

🔹 Personality-related Terms (Box 2.1)

 Temperament = biological reaction style (e.g., calm, aggressive).

 Trait = stable way of behaving (e.g., honesty).

 Disposition = tendency to react in a certain way.

 Character = overall regular behaviour pattern.

 Habit = overlearned mode of behaviour (e.g., biting nails).

 Values = important goals/ideals (e.g., honesty, justice).

🔹 Major Approaches to the Study of Personality

1. Type Approaches

 Hippocrates (Greek): 4 types based on body fluids (sanguine, phlegmatic, melancholic,

choleric).

 Charak Samhita (India): Tridosha (vata, pitta, kapha) and Triguna (sattva, rajas, tamas).

 Sheldon: Body types:

o Endomorphic (fat, sociable),

o Mesomorphic (muscular, energetic),

o Ectomorphic (thin, introvert).

 Carl Jung: Introvert (shy, withdrawn) vs. Extravert (outgoing, social).

 Friedman & Rosenman:

o Type A = impatient, ambitious, risk of heart disease.

o Type B = relaxed.

o Type C = cooperative, suppresses emotions → prone to cancer.

o Type D = prone to depression.

Keywords: Triguna, introvert, extravert, Type A/B/C/D.

Q (Small): Who classified people into introverts and extraverts?

A: Carl Jung.

Q (Big): Explain Type A and Type B personalities with examples.

A: Type A = impatient, work-pressured, risk of heart disease (e.g., stressed businessman). Type B
= relaxed, patient (e.g., calm teacher).

2. Trait Approaches

 Focus on specific, stable traits.

Allport:

 Cardinal traits → dominate life (e.g., Gandhi’s non-violence).

  Central traits → general traits (honesty, warmth).

 Secondary traits → preferences (likes mangoes).

Cattell:

 Used factor analysis → 16 source traits.

 Test = 16PF (Personality Factor Questionnaire).

Eysenck:

 Two main dimensions:

1. Neuroticism vs. Emotional stability

2. Extraversion vs. Introversion

 Later added Psychoticism vs. Sociability.

 Test = Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ).

Big Five Model (Costa & McCrae):

1. Openness

2. Conscientiousness

3. Extraversion

4. Agreeableness

5. Neuroticism

Keywords: Allport traits, 16PF, EPQ, Big Five.

Q (Small): Name the five factors in the Big Five Model.

A: Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism.

Q (Big): Explain Allport’s classification of traits with examples.

A: Cardinal (dominate life, Gandhi’s non-violence), Central (general traits like honesty),
Secondary (preferences like liking mangoes).

3. Psychodynamic Approach (Freud & others)

Freud:

 Levels of mind:
 o Conscious (awareness), Preconscious (can be recalled), Unconscious (hidden
desires).

 Structure:

o Id → pleasure principle, demands (hunger, sex).

o Ego → reality principle, balances id and society.

o Superego → morality, conscience.

 Defence Mechanisms:

o Repression (push away desires),

o Projection (put own traits on others),

o Denial,

o Rationalisation,

o Reaction formation.

 Psychosexual Stages: Oral, Anal, Phallic (Oedipus/Electra complex), Latency, Genital.

Post-Freudians:

 Jung: Collective unconscious, archetypes.

 Horney: Rejected Freud’s view on women, emphasised social/cultural factors.

 Adler: Inferiority complex, goal-directed behaviour.

 Erikson: Psychosocial stages, identity crisis in adolescence.

 Fromm: Social orientation, freedom, justice.

Keywords: Id, Ego, Superego, defence mechanisms, archetypes, inferiority complex, identity
crisis.

Q (Small): What principle does id operate on?

A: Pleasure principle.

Q (Big): Explain Freud’s structure of personality with examples.

A: Id = primitive desires, Ego = reality check, Superego = morality. Example: Wanting ice cream
→ Id = grab it, Ego = ask for it, Superego = decide if it’s right.

4. Behavioural Approach
  Focuses only on observable behaviour, not inner thoughts.

 Personality = learnt habits.

 Based on conditioning & reinforcement (Pavlov, Skinner, Bandura).

 Example: Child learns to eat vegetables due to praise (reinforcement).

5. Cultural Approach

 Personality shaped by ecology & culture.

 Example: Birhor tribe (Jharkhand) → independent, risk-taking (hunting lifestyle).

 Agricultural societies → obedience, responsibility.

6. Humanistic Approach

 Carl Rogers:

o Self-concept (real self vs. ideal self).

o Self-actualisation = fulfilling potential.

o Therapy: unconditional positive regard.

 Abraham Maslow:

o Hierarchy of needs → self-actualisation at the top.

o Healthy personality = self-awareness, creativity, openness.

Keywords: Self-actualisation, real self, ideal self, unconditional positive regard.

Q (Small): Who gave the hierarchy of needs?

A: Abraham Maslow.

Q (Big): Explain Carl Rogers’ view of personality.

A: Rogers believed personality develops through self-actualisation, where real self aligns with
ideal self. Positive social conditions raise self-esteem and growth.

🔹 Who is a Healthy Person? (Box 2.3)

 Accepts self, lives in the present, takes responsibility.

  Is flexible, open, creative, self-aware.

 Doesn’t just adjust to society but seeks growth.

🔹 Assessment of Personality

1. Self-report Measures

 Directly asking person.

 Examples:

o MMPI (Hathaway & McKinley, 567 items, 10 subscales).

o JMPI (Indian adaptation).

o Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ).

o 16PF (Cattell).

 Problems: Social desirability (fake good answers), Acquiescence (always saying yes).

2. Projective Techniques

 Indirect, reveal unconscious motives.

 Examples:

o Rorschach Inkblot Test – 10 inkblots.

o TAT (Thematic Apperception Test) – tell story from pictures.

o Sentence Completion Test – finish incomplete sentences.

o Draw-a-Person Test – draw a person, interpret features.

o Rosenzweig’s P-F Study – response to frustration pictures.

3. Behavioural Analysis

 Observe behaviour in natural settings.

 Methods: Interview, observation, rating scales.

Keywords: MMPI, TAT, Inkblot, Draw-a-Person, Behavioural analysis.

Q (Small): Name two projective tests of personality.

A: Rorschach Inkblot Test, Thematic Apperception Test.
Q (Big): Explain self-report and projective techniques with examples.
A: Self-report → direct, structured (e.g., MMPI). Projective → indirect, reveals unconscious (e.g.,
TAT, Inkblot).

🔹 Key Terms

Self, Personal self, social self, Self-concept, Self-esteem, Self-efficacy, Self-regulation, Personality,
Trait, Type A/B, Id, Ego, Superego, Defence Mechanisms, Psychosexual stages, Archetypes,
Inferiority complex, Self-actualisation, MMPI, TAT.

🔹 Summary

 Self = ideas we hold about ourselves, shaped by culture.

 Personality = stable patterns of behaviour.

 Approaches: Type, Trait, Psychodynamic, Behavioural, Cultural, Humanistic.

 Healthy personality = self-aware, creative, responsible.

 Assessment methods: Self-report, Projective, Behavioural

🔹 1 Mark Questions

Q1. Define self-concept.

A: Self-concept is the set of ideas and beliefs we hold about ourselves in different areas of life
(e.g., “I am good at sports but weak in maths”).

Q2. Who introduced the idea of self-efficacy?

A: Albert Bandura.

Q3. What is Type A personality?

A: Type A personality is highly ambitious, competitive, impatient, and prone to stress and heart
disease.

Q4. Name the five dimensions of Big Five Model.

A: Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism.
🔹 2 Mark Questions

Q1. Differentiate between personal self and social self.

A:

 Personal self: Focuses on individual goals, freedom, and achievements (e.g., wanting to
top in exams).

 Social self: Focuses on relationships, cooperation, and group harmony (e.g., helping
family and friends).

Q2. Mention two problems with self-report measures.

A:

1. Social desirability: People may give answers that look good, not true.

2. Acquiescence: People may agree with statements without thinking.

Q3. What is meant by unconditional positive regard?

A: Unconditional positive regard (Carl Rogers) means accepting and respecting a person without
any conditions, helping them grow and achieve self-actualisation.

🔹 3 Mark Questions

Q1. Explain Freud’s levels of mind.

A:

 Conscious: Current awareness (thoughts, feelings).

 Preconscious: Memories that can be recalled when needed.

 Unconscious: Hidden desires, fears, and repressed feelings influencing behaviour.

Q2. Write short notes on Self-esteem and Self-regulation.

A:

 Self-esteem: Value judgment of oneself. High self-esteem → confidence; low self-esteem

→ anxiety.

 Self-regulation: Ability to control behaviour and emotions. Involves self-observation,

self-instruction, and self-reinforcement.

Q3. Explain Cattell’s 16PF.

A: Cattell identified 16 source traits using factor analysis. He developed the 16 Personality
Factor (16PF) Questionnaire to measure personality traits like reserved vs. outgoing, relaxed vs.
tense, etc.

🔹 4 Mark Questions

Q1. Describe Carl Jung’s contribution to personality psychology.

A:

 Divided people into Introverts (shy, reserved) and Extraverts (outgoing, social).

 Proposed collective unconscious – inherited store of universal experiences.

 Introduced archetypes – universal symbols (hero, mother, wise old man).

Q2. Explain any two projective techniques with examples.

A:

1. Rorschach Inkblot Test: Person interprets 10 ambiguous inkblots, revealing unconscious

thoughts.

2. TAT (Thematic Apperception Test): Person makes stories about pictures, showing needs,
conflicts, and emotions.

Q3. What are defence mechanisms? Explain with examples.

A: Defence mechanisms are unconscious strategies used by ego to reduce anxiety. Examples:

 Repression: Pushing painful thoughts away.

 Projection: Attributing one’s feelings to others.

 Rationalisation: Giving false but logical reasons for behaviour.

 Denial: Refusing to accept reality.

🔹 6 Mark Questions

Q1. Discuss Freud’s structure of personality and defence mechanisms.

A:

 Structure:

o Id: Primitive desires, works on pleasure principle.

o Ego: Reality principle, balances id and society.

 o Superego: Morality and conscience.

 Defence Mechanisms: Ego uses them to reduce anxiety. Examples: repression,

projection, rationalisation, denial, reaction formation.

 Example: If a student fails exam → Id says “blame teacher,” Superego says “study
harder,” Ego finds balance by reattempting exam.

Q2. Explain Allport’s, Cattell’s, and Eysenck’s trait theories.

A:

 Allport: Traits classified as Cardinal (dominating life, Gandhi’s non-violence), Central

(general traits, honesty), Secondary (preferences, liking mangoes).

 Cattell: Identified 16 source traits, made 16PF test.

 Eysenck: Three dimensions – Neuroticism vs Stability, Extraversion vs Introversion,

Psychoticism vs Sociability.

Q3. Explain cultural differences in personality with examples.

A:

 Western cultures: Personality is individualistic (focus on independence, personal

achievement).

 Indian culture: Collectivistic (focus on family, group harmony).

 Example: Birhor tribe (Jharkhand) → independent, risk-taking; Agricultural societies →

cooperative, responsible.

Q4. Describe Rogers’ and Maslow’s humanistic approaches.

A:

 Carl Rogers: Personality develops through self-concept. Growth happens when real self =
ideal self. Therapy → unconditional positive regard.

 Maslow: Hierarchy of needs (physiological → safety → love → esteem → self-

actualisation). A healthy person is self-aware, open, and creative.